Notes on Church History

A Church HistoryTimeline

Compiled by R. Grant
Jones

If there is no timeline to the right,
click here.

Warning:  This is a work in progress,

and doubtless contains errors.

The Pre-Christian Background

First Century
Jesus,
Paul,
Nero,
Clement,

Persecutions under Nero and Domitian,
Synod of Jamnia

Second Century
Persecution under Trajan, Hadrian,and
Marcus Aurelius;
Ignatius of Antioch,
Symeon,
Marcion,

Quadratus,
Aristides,
Bar-Cocheba,
Justin Martyr,

Aristo of Pella,
Polycarp,
Montanus,
Claudius
Apollinaris,
Melito of Sardis,
Tertullian,
Irenaeus,

Victor of Rome,
Polycrates,
Clement of Alexandria

Third Century
Persecution under Septimius Severus,
Decius, and
Valerian;
Origen,
Callistus,

Hippolytus,
Dionysius,
Cyprian,
Stephen of
Rome,
Paul of Samosata,
Diocletian,
the Apostolic
Constitutions

Fourth Century (Part I)
Persecution under
Diocletian;
The council of Elvira,
Alban,
Lucian of
Antioch,
Constantine,
the Edict of Milan,

Alexander of Alexandria,
Arius,
Eusebius of
Nicomedia,
First Ecumenical Council (Nicea),
Eusebius
of Caesarea,
Athanasius,
Marcellus of Ancyra,

Julius of Rome,
Council of Antioch,
Council of
Sardica,
Cyril of Jerusalem

Fourth Century (Part II)
Councils of Sirmium,

Hilary of Poitiers,
Council of Arles,
Council of
Milan,
Liberius of Rome,
The “Blasphemy” of
Hosius,
Anomoeans,
Pneumatomachi,

Aetius,
Basil of Ancyra,
Rival Councils at Rimini
and Seleucia,
Jerome,
Julian the Apostate,

Meletius and Paulinus,
Damasus,
Basil the Great,

Gregory Nazianzus,
Gregory of Nyssa,

Epiphanius,
the Tall Brothers,
Second Ecumenical
Council (Constantinople),
Siricius,
Symeon the
Stylite,
Theodore of Mopsuestia,
Council of
Carthage,
Augustine of Hippo,
John Chrysostom

Fifth Century
Augustine of Hippo,
John
Chrysostom,
the Synod of the Oak,
Alaric Sacks
Rome,
John Cassian,
Pelagius,
Cyril of
Alexandria,
Theodore of Mopsuestia,
Jerome,

Theodoret,
Celestine,
Nestorius,
The
Twelve Anathemas,
Third Ecumenical Council (Ephesus),

Vincent of Lerins,
Leo the Great,
Dioscorus,

Eutyches,
the Robber council,
Fourth Ecumenical Council
(Chalcedon),
Attila the Hun,
the end of the Roman
Empire in the West,
Peter the Fuller,
Acacius,

the Henoticon,
Gelasius

Sixth Century
Severus,
Julian of Helicarnassus,

John the Grammarian,
Burgundians renounce Arianism,

Justin,
schism over the Henoticon ends,
Hormisdas,

slaughter of Christians in Yemen,
Boethius,
Dionysios Exiguus,

Justinian,
Benedict,
Council of Orange,
St. Sabbas,

Hagia Sophia,
Pseudo-Dionysius,
Leontius of Jerusalem,

Evagrius,
Agapetus visits Constantinople,
Cassiodorus,

Dionysius Exiguus,
the Condemnation of Origen,
plague,

John Scholasticus,
Vigilius,
defeat of the Gothic
kingdom in Italy,
Fifth Ecumenical Council (Constantinople),
the
Suevis renounce Arianism,
Columba of Iona,
Lombards invade Italy,

Avar invasion,
Persian invasion,
Jacob
Baradaeus,
Maximus Confessor (birth),
Columbanus,

Visigoths renounce Arianism,
Council of Toledo (and the
filioque),
John of Biclar,
Gregory the Great,

Augustine of Canterbury

Seventh Century
Augustine of Canterbury,
the
Persians conquer Jerusalem and take the true cross,
Heraclius,

Sergios,
Honorius,
death of Mohammed,
Isidore of
Seville,
Sophronius,
last Arian king of the Lombards,
Aidan of
Lindisfarne,
the Ekthesis,
John Climacus,
destruction
of the library in Alexandria,
council at Rome (649),
Maximus
Confessor,
the Arab conquest,
the Synod of Whitby,

Wilfrid,
Athanasian Creed,
Benedict Biscop,
the Sixth
Ecumenical Council (Constantinople),
Maronites,
Willibrord,

Quinisext Council

Eighth Century
Arab conquest of Spain,
Coelfrith,

Boniface,
Paulicians,
Leo the Isaurian,

Iconoclasm,
John of Damascus,
the Venerable Bede,

the battle of Tours,
the Khazars,
Constantine
Copronymus,
the Donation of Constantine,
council of Gentily,

synod of Cealchythe,
Empress Irene,
forced conversion of the
Saxons,
Seventh Ecumenical Council (Nicea),
the synod of
Frankfort

Ninth Century
Charlemagne,
Alcuin,

Theodore Studites,
the council of Aachen,
Nicephorus,

the University of Constantinople,
the Synodicon of
Orthodoxy,
Gottschalk of Orbais,
persecution in Spain,

Photius,
Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals,
Nicholas I,

Cyril and Methodius,
John Scotus Erigena,
Conversion of
Bulgaria,
Ratramnus,
Radbertus,
Hincmar of
Reims,
Mount Athos,
the Synod horrenda

Tenth Century
Cluny,
the Bulgarian
patriarchate,
King Wencelaus of Bohemia,
the Magyars
defeated,
several bad popes,
influence in Denmark,
in
Norway,
in Poland,
in Hungary,
the Wendish Revolt,

Adalbert of Prague,
the conversion of Russia,
Olaf Tryggvason,

influence in Sweden

Eleventh Century
Leningrad Codex,
the
filioque first inserted into the creed in Rome,
Alexius
the Studite,
Phoundagiagitai,
King Stephen of Hungary,

persecution under Caliph Hakim,
Michael Psellus,
the
investiture controversy,
Berengar of Tours,
the East-West
Schism,
Michael Cerularius,
Jaroslav the Wise,

another Wendish uprising,
the Norman conquest,

Christianity imposed in Sweden,
Manzikert,
Hildebrand,

Henry IV,
John Italos,
Constantine the African,
Anselm,

Christodoulos,
the First Crusade,
the Cistercians

Twelfth Century
Basil the Bogomil,
the Holy Fire
in Jerusalem,
the Templars,
St. Cyril Philiotes,
Concordat of
Worms,
Otto of Bamburg,
Gratian’s Decretum,
Constantine
Chrysomallos,
Peter Abelard,
Bernard of Clairvaux,
the Second
Crusade,
the Wendish Crusade,
Peter Lombard,
Synod of
Blachernae,
Synod on John 14.28,
Cathari council in Languedoc,

Thomas Becket,
Euphronsyne of Polotsk,
Joachim of Fiore,

massacre in Constantinople,
St. John of Novgorod,
Saladin,

the Third Crusade,
Richard the Lionhearted,
Teutonic Knights,

Theodore Balsamon,
the Livonian Crusade,
Michael Glykas

Thirteenth Century
the Fourth Crusade sacks
Constantinople,
Stephen Langton,
the Fourth Lateran
Council,
Francis of Assisi,
Dominic,
St. Sava,
Synodicon
of the Holy Spirit,
Papal Inquisition,
Alexander Nevsky,

Mongols,
Thomas Aquinas,
Bonaventure,
council
of Lyons,
council of 1285,
Saint Timofey,
Dante,
Duns
Scotus

Fourteenth Century
Unum Sanctum,
the
Babylonian Captivity of the papacy,
St. Sergius of Radonezh,

St. Gregory Palamas,
the Black Plague,
Serbian
patriarchate,
Council of St. Sophia,
Council of
Blachernae,
Schism of the papacy,
battle of Kulikova,

John Wyclif,
conversion of Lithuania

Fifteenth Century
the synod of Piza,
John
Huss,
the council of Basel,
council of Constance,

Joan of Arc,
the council of Florence,
the printing
press,
fall of Constantinople,
the Judaizer heresy,

Marsilio Ficino,
the first Tsars of Russia,
the Spanish
Inquisition,
Archbishop Gennadi,
Abbot Joseph,

Rodrigo Borgia,
the new world

Sixteenth Century
Non-possessors,
Nils
Sorsky,
John Reuchlin,
Erasmus,
Martin
Luther,
Complutensian Polyglot,
the Aldine
Septuagint,
the Diet of Worms,
Henry VIII,

Suleiman’s Seige of Vienna,
the first complete English Bible
printed,
Calvin,
the Jesuits,
the Roman
Inquisition,
the council of Trent, Mary Tudor,
the
Peace of Augsburg,
the Geneva Bible,
the Bishop's
Bible,
Ivan the Terrible,
the battle of Lepanto,

the massacre of St. Bartholomew,
Ostrozhsky or
Ostrong Bible,
Gregorian
Calendar,
Sixtine
Septuagint,
Russian
Patriarchate,
Brest-Litovsk,
the Edict of
Nantes,
Basil of Mangazeya

Seventeenth Century
Douay-Rheims Bible,
the King
James Bible,
the Thirty Years War,
Philaret of
Moscow,
Josaphat Kuntsevich,
Textus Receptus,

Codex Alexandrinus,
Huguenots,
Cyril
Lukaris,
the English Civil War,
Council of
Jerusalem,
Council of Jassy,
Peter of Moghila,

Nikon,
Peter the Great,
final Turkish seige of
Vienna,
revocation of the Edict of Nantes,
liberation
of Hungary,
Glorious Revolution

Eighteenth Century
Unigenitus,
Moscow
patriarchate abolished,
Melkites,
Gregorian
calendar,
Paissy Velichkovshy,
Jesuits
suppressed,
Kosmas the Aetolian,
the Philokalia

Nineteenth Century
Alexis Khomiakov,
Nikita
the Albanian,
Seraphim of Sarov,
Kollyvades,
John
of Kronstadt,
liberation of Greece from Turkish rule,

Marquis de Custine,
the encyclicals of the Eastern
Patriarchs,
the Crimean War,
Immaculate
Conception,
First Vatican Council,
Westcott and Hort,

The Way of a Pilgrim,
Theophan the Recluse,

Leo XIII

Twentieth Century
Gregorian calendar,

persecution of the Russian Church,
World War II,

Vatican II,
the “embrace of peace”

A partial list of references

Maps*

A Map to Accompany the First Four Centuries

The Patriarchates Circa 451

*To view a map at its full size when using Internet Explorer, place
your cursor over the map and click on the icon that appears at the lower
right.

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The Fourth Century

Part 1
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Index

301+  During this century, the
Eastern Church began singing the Gloria in excelsis in the Daily
Offices.  The hymn was originally written in Greek.  It was
adopted for use in the West, often during Matins.  The Gloria
was first introduced to Rome by Symmachus (498-514).  When the Roman
liturgy spread throughout the Western Church during the eighth century,
the Gloria came to be used exclusively in the mass.

301 Diocletian set the stage for the Middle Ages
with an edict which forced tradesmen to remain in their trades and their
descendants to follow in their footsteps.  Tenants were compelled to
remain on their land for life.

301 Under King Tiridate, Armenia adopted
Christianity as the state religion.

303 9th Persecution of the Church,
under Diocletian.  When augurs could no longer find the usual
signs on the livers of sacrificed animals, Diocletian consulted the oracle
of Apollo at Miletus.  The god blamed the Christians.  On 23 Feb
303, the Christian cathedral in Nicomedia was torn down.  The next
day, an edict declared all churches were to be destroyed, all Bibles and
liturgical books surrendered, sacred vessels confiscated, and all meetings
for (Christian) worship forbidden.  A few months later, an edict
limited to the East required the arrest of all clergy who refused to
sacrifice to the gods.

303 Two Roman army officers serving on the Syrian
frontier, Sts. Sergios and Bacchus, both Christians, refused to
sacrifice to Jupiter.  Maximian demoted them, then shamed them by
marching them through the streets dressed as women.  Next, they were
scourged in Risafe, Syria, where Bacchus died from his wounds.
Boards were nailed to Sergios’ feet, and he was forced to walk on
them.  Afterwards, he was beheaded.  (See 431 below.)

303 The council of Elvira (Illiberis, near
Granada).  Nineteen bishops and 24 priests met at this first council
of the Church in Spain.  The council adopted 81 canons, 34 of them
dealing with marriage and sexual misconduct.  No reconciliation with
the Church was permitted for those who committed the sins of idolatry,
divorce, incest, or repeated adultery.  Punishment for lesser sins
was exclusion from the eucharist, for periods as long as 10 years.
“[B]ishops, priests, deacons and all members of the clergy connected with
the liturgy must abstain from their wives and must not beget sons” (see
Siricius, 385-6).  Canon 43 emphasizes the importance of celebrating
the day of Pentecost, and it seems to be directed against those who
would close Pentecost on the fortieth day after Pascha.  At any rate,
this canon is the first Christain use of ‘Pentecost’ as referring to a
specific day and not to the full fifty-day period.   The exact
date of the council is not known.  The range 300-303 and the year 309
have scholarly support.

304 All citizens of the empire required to
sacrifice to the gods under pain of death.  In practice, this was
limited to the East.

304 Marcellinus, bishop of Rome, fell
away into apostasy during this persecution.

Also martyred this year was St.
George.  A native of Cappadocia and child of Christian parents,
George became a tribune in Roman army regiment.  Diocletian honored
him with the rank of “trophy-bearer” for his bravery.  When the
persecution began, George voluntarily confessed his Christian faith to the
emperor.  Diolcetian commanded him to sacrifice to the gods.
When George refused, he was stretched out supine with a heavy stone on his
chest.  The next day, George again refused to sacrifice, and
Diocletian had him attached to a great wheel which tore at his flesh with
an assortment of barbs.  When George again refused to abjure Christ,
Diocletian had him beheaded.

Another martyr during this persecution was Pelagia
of Tarsus.  One of Diocletian’s sons fell in love with her, but she
had dedicated herself to God instead.  Diocletian’s son killed
himself when he realized he couldn’t have her.  Diocletian then had
Pelagia burned.

305 St. Panteleimon, a physician of
Nicomedia, martyred.  Panteleimon had given his services
freely.  His relics were later moved to Constantinople and a church
was built there and dedicated to him.  This church was rebuilt by
Justinian in 532.

305 On May 1, Diocletian, and his co-emperor
Maximian, abdicated.

306 Flavius Constantius, Caesar in the West, died
at York (Eburacum, in Britain).  (Constantius had been Maximian’s
subordinate caesar in the West, becoming caesar augustus in the West upon
Maximian’s abdcation.)  The army proclaimed his son Constantine
Emperor.

306 A dispute arose between Peter, bishop of
Alexandria, and Meletius, bishop of Lycopolis.  Peter had Meletius
deposed for fomenting discord:  Meletius was critical of the light
penances Peter imposed on those who lapsed during Diocletian’s
persecution.  Persecution began again in 308, and Meletius was exiled
to the mines in Palestine.  He returned in 311, and led a schism
after being excommunicated by Peter.  The Meletians were to become
allies of the Arians against Athanasius.

311 The Emperor Galerius issued an edict allowing
Christianity the right to exist and Christians to form assemblies.

311 Death of Methodius, once bishop of Olympus and Patara
in Lycia.  A theologian in the Asiatic tradition of Irenaeus, he
attacked Origen’s doctrines of the preexistence of souls, matter as a
prison for the spirit, and the non-physical nature of the resurrected
body.  Methodius became bishop of Tyre before his martyrdom at
Chalcis in Syria (southwest of Aleppo).  (Some, however, think he
died at Chalcis in Greece.)

312 Exegetical school at Antioch founded by
Lucian.  Lucian was also martyred in 312.  His edition of
the New Testament is thought by some to be the ancestor of the Majority
Text.  Lucian was born at Samosata, and was under suspicion for a
period of sharing Paul of Samosata’s heretical views.

Lucian opposed the allegorical interpretation of
Scripture, popular at Alexandria, with a literal methodology. Lucian’s
Christology is suspect:  he apparently held that the Word was a
creature through whom all other creatures were formed.  Many
major leaders of the Arian movement – Arius, Eusebius of Nicomedia, Maris
and Theognis – were trained by Lucian.

312 Constantine defeated his rival Maxentius at the
battle of the Milvian bridge outside Rome.  The legend is, on the way
to this battle, he saw a cross in the sky one afternoon with the words Hoc
vince (by this conquer), and he adopted the cross as his standard.
He was emperor in the West.  The following year, Licinius
consolidated power in the East.  The Lateran palace was turned over
to the bishop of Rome, Miltiades, as an episcopal residence.

312 This was the initial year for a 15-year cycle
of property taxes, known as the indiction.  The Indiction of
Constantinople was used as a dating system in the East.  The year
between 1 Sep 312 and 31 Aug 313 was the first year of the indiction, as
was the year from 1 Sep 327 to 31 Aug 328.  The Imperial, Caesarean,
or Western Indiction is similar, but begins each year with 24
September.  Apparently this is due to an error made by the Venerable
Bede (see 731), who mistook 24 Sep for the autumnal equinox.

313 Constantine issued the Edict of
Milan:  Christianity was given a legal status equal to
paganism.

313 Alexander became bishop of Alexandria.
Served through 328.  Opponent of Arius, one of his presbyters.
From this time, the bishop of Alexandria was “the Pope,” emphatically
beyond all others, and he retains that title to this day.  The
bishops of Rome began to use the title around the year 400 – see Siricius
below, year 384.

314 Constantine, Emperor of the West, called the
Council of Arles (Arelate), a general council of the Western
church.  Caecilian, the compromising bishop of Carthage, was
challenged by the election of a rival bishop, Majorinus, who held to the
Cyprianic theology.  Majorinus was succeeded by Donatus.  The
quarrel between the followers of Donatus and Caecilian was terminated in
favor of Caecilian.  Since these latter only remain in communion with
the churches outside Africa, they were henceforth known as
Catholics.  Donatus’ followers were called Donatists, and this sect
persevered until the Arab invasion.  Donatism was proscribed in 412
(see below).  Three British bishops are reported to have attended the
Council of Arles.

314 An Egyptian named Pachomius left the
Roman Army this year and joined the hermit Palemon near Tabennisi on the
east bank of the Nile, near Thebes.  He built the first monastic
enclosure and formulated a rule for daily work and prayer.  By the
time of his death in 346, St. Pachomius had founded 11 monasteries with
more than 7000 monks and nuns.  Pachomius is said to have destroyed a
book by Origen, whom he considered a heretic, by throwing it into the
Nile.  He would have burned the book had it not contained the name of
the Lord.

315 The forty holy martyrs of
Sebastea.  The emperor Licinius (307-324) ordered all Christians
in the army to sacrifice to idols.  Forty soldiers serving in
Sebastea, Armenia, refused.  During winter, they were made to stand
in the extremely cold Lake Sebastea with their hands tied behind their
backs.  After some time, one of the forty left the lake, but fell
dead when he was placed in a warm bath.  One of the guards then had a
vision of forty crowns descending over the lake.  He understood the
vision to mean that he was to become the fortieth martyr, and he rushed
into the lake with the remaining thirty-nine.  (Sebastea, now known
as Sivas, is in central Turkey.)

315 Constantine called upon Lactantius
(260-330) to educate his son Crispus.  Lactantius is the author
of the Divine Institutes, a comprehensive apology for Christianity
and exposition of the faith.

318 Arius, a presbyter of the Alexandrian
church, began to teach the heresy that goes by his name.  He did not
believe that the incarnate Son is one with the transcendent first cause of
creation.  “The Son who is tempted, suffers, and dies, however
exalted he may be, is not to be equal to the immutable Father beyond pain
and death; if he is other than the Father, he is inferior.”  The
Logos, therefore, is inferior to the Father.  Arius had powerful
supporters in Eusebius bishop of Palestinian Caesarea and in Eusebius
bishop of Nicomedia (the imperial residence in Bithynia).

320 Constantine bridged the Danube above its
confluence with the river Olt.

321 Constantine required all subjects of the
Roman Empire to observe the Lord’s day as a day of rest and also to honor
Friday, the day of Christ’s death.  He allowed Christian soldiers
leave to attend church on Sunday, and even enjoined pagan soldiers to pray
on Sunday.  (Note that this in no way implies that Constantine
invented Christian worship on Sunday.)  Prior to this time,
the seven day week had not been officially observed by the Roman
Empire.  Instead, the days of the month were denoted by counting down
toward the Kalends, the Nones, and the Ides of each month.

323 Constantine won the battle of
Chrysopolis.  Defeated Licinius, and became sole Roman
emperor.

325 Birth of St. Gregory Nazianzus.

In January, a synod held in Antioch provisionally
excommunicated Eusebius of Caesarea, Theodotus of Laodicea, and Narcissus
of Naronias in Cilicia for adherence to the Arian heresy.

325 First Ecumenical Council, held at Nicaea
(Nicea).  Called by Constantine to settle the dispute over Arius’
doctrines on the person of Christ.  Hosius, bishop of Cordova,
presided.  The legates from Rome were given the position fourth in
honor.  218 of 220 bishops present agreed to a creed the council drew
up, though there was diversity in interpretation.

The creed of the council of
Nicaea:

"We believe in one God, the Father almighty,
maker of all things, visible and invisible;

"And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of
God, begotten of the Father, only-begotten, that is, from the substance of
the Father, God from God, light from light, true God from true God,
begotten not made, of one substance with the Father, through Whom all
things came into being, things in heaven and things on earth, Who because
of us men and because of our salvation came down and became incarnate,
becoming man, suffered and rose again on the third day, ascended to the
heavens, and will come to judge the living and the dead;

"And in the Holy Spirit.

"But for those who say, There was when He
was not, and, Before being born He was not, and that He came into
existence out of nothing, or who assert that the Son of God is from a
different hypostasis or substance, or is created, or is subject to
alteration or change - these the Catholic Church anathematizes."

The statement in the creed that the Son is of the
same substance (homoousios) with the Father caused the greatest
controversy in the subsequent battle with the Arians.  At Nicaea, the
Arians were able to agree to just about every other formula that indicated
the divinity of the Son.  They simply interpreted these formulae in
an Arian manner.  But the homoousios was unacceptable to
them.  In De Decretis, Athanasius wrote:  “The
Council wishing to do away with the irreligious phrases of the Arians, and
to use instead the acknowledged words of the Scriptures, that the Son is
not from nothing but `from God,' and is `Word' and `Wisdom,' and not
creature or work, but a proper offspring from the Father, Eusebius [of
Nicomedia] and his fellows, led by their inveterate heterodoxy, understood
the phrase `from God' as belonging to us, as if in respect to it the Word
of God differed nothing from us, and that because it is written, `There is
one God, from whom, all things (1 Cor 8.6);' and again, `Old things are
passed away, behold, all things are become new, and all things are from
God (2 Cor 5.17).' But the Fathers, perceiving their craft and the cunning
of their irreligion, were forced to express more distinctly the sense of
the words `from God.' Accordingly, they wrote `from the essence of God,'
in order that `from God' might not be considered common and equal in the
Son and in things originate, but that all others might be acknowledged as
creatures, and the Word alone as from the Father.”

“Again, when the Bishops said that the Word
must be described as the True Power and Image of the Father, in all things
exact and like the Father, and as unalterable, and as always, and as in
Him without division (for never was the Word not, but He was always,
existing everlastingly with the Father, as the radiance of light),
Eusebius and his fellows endured indeed, as not daring to contradict,
being put to shame by the arguments which were urged against them; but
withal they were caught whispering to each other and winking with their
eyes, that `like,' and `always,' and `power,' and `in Him,' were, as
before, common to us and the Son, and that it was no difficulty to agree
to these.  As to `like,' they said that it is written of us, `Man is
the image and glory of God (1 Cor 11.7):' `always,' that it was written,
`For we which live are alway (2 Cor 4.11):' `in Him,' `In Him we live and
move and have our being (Acts 17.18):'`unalterable,' that it is written,
`Nothing shall separate us from the love of Christ (Rom 8.35):' as to
`power,' that the caterpillar and the locust are called `power' and `great
power (Joel 2.25),' and that it is often said of the people, for instance,
`All the power of the Lord came out of the land of Egypt (Ex 12.41):' and
there are others also, heavenly ones, for Scripture says, `The Lord of
powers is with us, the God of Jacob is our refuge (Psalm 96.7).' ... But
the Bishops discerning in this too their dissimulation, and whereas it is
written, `Deceit is in the heart of the irreligious that imagine evil
(Prov 12.20),' were again compelled on their part to collect the sense of
the Scriptures, and to re-say and re-write what they had said before, more
distinctly still, namely, that the Son is `one in essence' with the
Father: by way of signifying, that the Son was from the Father, and not
merely like, but the same in likeness, and of shewing that the Son's
likeness and unalterableness was different from such copy of the same as
is ascribed to us, which we acquire from virtue on the ground of
observance of the commandments.  For bodies which are like each other
may be separated and become at distances from each other, as are human
sons relatively to their parents (as it is written concerning Adam and
Seth, who was begotten of him that he was like him after his own pattern
(Gen 5.3)); but since the generation of the Son from the Father is not
according to the nature of men, and not only like, but also inseparable
from the essence of the Father, and He and the Father are one, as He has
said Himself, and the Word is ever in the Father and the Father in the
Word, as the radiance stands towards the light (for this the phrase itself
indicates), therefore the Council, as understanding this, suitably wrote
`one in essence,' that they might both defeat the perverseness of the
heretics, and shew that the Word was other than originated things.
For, after thus writing, they at once added, `But they who say that the
Son of God is from nothing, or created, or alterable, or a work, or from
other essence, these the Holy Catholic Church anathematizes.'”

Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch had traditionally
exercised jurisdiction outside of their respective cities:  Rome over
southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia, for instance; and Alexandria over
Egypt, Libya and Pentapolis.  (The sphere of Antioch appears to have
been Coele-Syria and Cyprus.)  These churches, with special
privileges outside their provinces, exercising direct control to the
exclusion of the ordinary power of the metropolitans bishops, came to be
termed patriarchates.  The council also gave special honor to
Jerusalem, without prejudicing the privileges of Caesarea.  This was
the first step toward the creation of a patriarchate of Jerusalem in the
next century, at Ephesus (431).

The bishop of Alexandria was given the privilege
of announcing the date of Easter.  This to guard against
disagreement over the date.  Announced in the annual “festal
letter.”  The date was to be calculated according to the custom in
Egypt, Palestine and the West.  The churches in Asia Minor, prior to
this decision, had held Easter on Passover.  Alexandria may have been
selected because of its superior astronomers.

As a 40-day period (six weeks) Lent was mentioned
in canon 5.  Canon 20 forbade kneeling on Sundays or during
Pentecost, since these are times of joy.

327 Eusebius of Caesarea, in response to a
letter from the emperor’s sister Constantia asking for a picture of
Christ, took it for granted that only pagan artists would make such a
representation.  However, in his Ecclesiastical History (Book
7, Ch 18), he reported the existence of a miracle-working statue, thought
to be of Christ, in Caesarea Philippi.  That was the home city of the
woman healed of an issue of blood (Matt 9.20 and following).  The
statue depicted this woman (known to tradition as St. Berenice) stretching
out her hand to Jesus.  Eusebius also stated, without condemnation,
that the painted likenesses of Peter, Paul, and Christ had also been made,
"according to the habit of the Gentiles."

Also of note:  Eusebius saw the conversion of
Constantine as an act of God to further the spread of the good
news.

In his Ecclesiastical History, Eusebius
listed the New Testament books.  The genuine books:   the
four gospels, the epistles of Paul, 1 John, 1 Peter, and Revelation.
Disputed:  James, Jude, 2 and 3 John, and 2 Peter.  He also
mentioned Hebrews as a book “with which those of the Hebrews who have
received Christ are particularly delighted.”

Eusebius’ theology was influenced by Origen.
This was somewhat typical of the Conservatives or Semi-Arians in the East
during the Arian conflict.  Although defended as orthodox by Socrates
in the fifth century, Eusebius’ theological views are questionable.
In De Synodis, Athanasius wrote, “Eusebius of Caesarea in
Palestine, in a letter to Euphration the bishop, did not scruple to say
plainly that Christ was not true God.”   He had been condemned
by the synod of Antioch in 325, initially supported the Arians, and then,
though firmly adhering to orthodoxy after Nicaea, he was willing to
facilitate Constantine's wish to tolerate the return of the Arians to
communion with little evidence their position had changed.  Eusebius
was eventually condemned at the second council of Nicae in 787, being
described as double-minded.

Using the same basic methodology as Julius Africanus had employed (see
222 above), Eusebius arrived at the date 5228 anno mundi (year of
the world) for the beginning of Christ’s public ministry.  By this
reckoning, then, 1 A.D. is 5201 anno mundi.  Eusebius’
Chronikoi Kanones was popularized in the West through Jerome’s
Latin translation, known to the Venerable Bede.

328 Athanasius succeeded Alexander as bishop
of Alexandria.  He served initially through 335, when he was
dislodged by the maneuverings of Eusebius of Nicomedia on behalf of
Arius.

Athanasius interpreted the effect of the
incarnation using a Platonic view of human nature:  it is an ideal
each of us participates in as a human being.  By his incarnation,
Christ infuses fallen human nature with his divinity.  Although it
might seem natural, therefore, that all men would be saved, Athanasius did
not draw this conclusion, but instead held that only those who are in
union with the Holy Spirit participate in the divine nature.

In his Statement of Faith, Athanasius
wrote:  “But the Holy Spirit, being that which proceeds from the
Father, is ever in the hands of the Father Who sends and of the Son Who
conveys Him, by Whose means he filled all things.  The Father,
possessing His existence from Himself, begat the Son ... as a river from a
well and as a branch from a root, and as brightness from a light ... and
did not create Him.”

It has been stated that the “essential
difference between Athanasius and the ‘Conservatives’ [also called
Semiarians – the Easterners who were largely orthodox but wished to
replace the Nicene formula] ... [was that Athanasius understood] the
insufficiency of the formulae of the third century to meet the problem of
the fourth. (Introduction to Athanasius’ De Sententia
Dionysii)”

328 Eustathius, recently elected bishop of Antioch,
was deposed by an Arian council which met in that city.  The Arians
hired a woman to say Eustathius had sired her child.  Eustathius had
been an able defender of orthodoxy.  But he had reportedly spoken
disrespectfully of the emperor’s mother, Helena, in 326 when she was on
pilgrimage to the Holy Land.  Eustathius was a noted critic of
Origen.

329 Birth of St. Basil the Great.

330 Founding of the city of
Constantinople.  The University of Constantinople was founded at
about the same time and educated students until 1453.

Also about this year, Arius returned from exile,
after Eusebius of Nicomedia interceded for him with the emperor.
Eusebius then wrote to Athanasius asking him to restore Arius to
communion, but Athanasius refused.

Old Saint Peter’s Basilica was dedicated by
Constantine.  It was located over the traditional burial site of
Saint Peter the Apostle in Rome on Vatican Hill.

Death of Iamblichus (250-330) founder of the
Syrian school of Neoplatonism.  Iamblichus' modified Ploninus'
philosophy in the direction of a syncretic religion, which may have
provided the framework for Justinian's religious views.

332 The Tervingi, a Gothic tribe, were defeated in
battle and became clients to the Romans.

335 A mosaic image of Christ, depicted without a
beard, was set in a floor in Hinton St. Mary in Dorset, England.

335 The Despositio Martyrum, a calendar of
Roman martyrs, had been written by this year.

335 According to Eusebius of Caesarea in his
biography of Constantine, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in
Jerusalem was dedicated in this year.  On the way to the
dedication, about 150 bishops met in council in Tyre.
Eusebius of Caesarea presided.  Among the charges against Athanasius
was that he had had Arsenius, the Meletian bishop of Hypsele, murdered,
then procured one of his hands for magical purposes.  Athanasius
produced Arsenius at the council and refuted this charge, Arsenius being
alive with two hands intact.  The party of Eusebius of Nicomedia
prevailed, however, and Athanasius fled to Constantinople.  The
council passed a resolution deposing Athanasius.

At the dedication in Jerusalem, Arius was
received into communion on the strength of a confession of faith he
had presented to Constantine previously.  Word arrived that the
emperor wanted to discuss the events at Tyre, and Eusebius of Caesarea
accompanied the Arian bishops to make a further charge against
Athanasius.  He was accused of threatening to starve Constantinople
by stopping the grain shipments from Egypt.  Athanasius was banished
to Treveri, starting his journey around February of 336.

That same winter there was a council at
Constantinople which deposed Marcellus of Ancyra for heresy and
nominated a Basil to the see of Ancyra.  Marcellus had been a critic
of the theological tradition of Origen, which had emphasized the
independence of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit.  Marcellus was
accused of teaching that the distinction between the Father and the Son
was only temporary - the Logos will eventually merge with the
Father.  The excuse for deposing Marcellus was his failure to attend
the ceremonies reconciling Arius at the dedication ceremony in Jerusalem
the previous year.

335 A Palestinian named Epiphanios (see 375)
founded a monastery at Eleutheropolis in Judea.

336 The first notice of the Feast of the
Nativity of Christ (Christmas) occurred in a Roman almanac (the
Chronographer of 354, or Philocalian Calendar), which indicates
that the festival was observed by the church in Rome by the year
336.  In one of his letters, John Chrysostom mentioned that Julius I
(337-52), bishop of Rome, had the Imperial records of the Roman census
examined and confirmed the observance of Christ’s birthday on December
25.  See Hippolytus, year 198.  (It is interesting that in the
East Jesus’ birth, the adoration of the Magi, and baptism were all
observed on January 6.  It is possible that Julius’ records review
was conducted to bring the East into conformity with Rome.)

Death of Arius.  He died suddenly on
the day before he was to be received back into communion with the
church.  The aged bishop Alexander had prayed that God would take
either him or Arius away before such an outrage to the faith could be
perpetrated.  He died attending to a call of nature, apparently of
heart failure.  There is the possibility that he was
poisoned.

During this year, Eusebius of Caesarea wrote two
works accusing Marcellus, bishop of Ancyra, of Sabellianism.

337 Constantine was baptized by
Eusebius of Nicomedia, and died, May 22.  Constantine delayed
baptism until the point of death as was common in the fourth century, but
considered himself a Christian from 313.  Upon Constantine’s death,
he was succeeded by his three sons:  Constantine II in the West,
Constans in Italy and North Africa, and Constantius in the East.  In
340, Constantine II was killed during a war against Constans.
Constantius tended to be guided by Eusebius of Nicomedia in religious
matters, while Constans supported the Western bishops, who were largely
orthodox.

On June 17, 337, Constantine II sent a letter to
the people and clergy of Alexandria, announcing that Athanasius was being
restored as their bishop.  He stated that this had been Constantine’s
intention, and that Athanasius had been removed to Treveri for his
protection.

337 Constantius became emperor in the East.
Served through 361.  Athananius returned from exile in November, and
stayed for 1 year and 4 to 5 months.  Eusebius of Nicomedia was
translated to Constantinople at about this time.

Eusebius of Constantinople presented the case to
Constantius that Athanasius and other orthodox bishops, (and Marcellus of
Ancyra) had been restored to their sees uncanonically.  Eusebius’
position was not unpopular with Eastern conservatives who had begun to see
a danger in state determination of ecclesiastical affairs.

338 In order to test the Western reaction, Eusebius
of Constantinople sent two deacons to Julius, bishop of Rome, to lay
charges against the deposed bishops (Athanasius, Marcellus, etc.).
They also argued that Pistus, whom the Eusebians had sent to Alexandria,
should be recognized as bishop there.

338/9 Athanasius composed a letter dealing with the
charges against him and sent it with two presbyters to Rome.  The
Eusebian deacons then asked Julius to call a council to settle the
issue.  Julius agreed to this.  He in turn sent two presbyters
to Antioch to invite the Eusebians to a council.

339 In January, the Eusebians met in council in
Antioch, where Constantius was spending the winter.  They
repeated their deposition of Athanasius and appointed Gregory the
Cappadocian, not Pistus, to succeed him.  The Roman presbyters
arrived after this council, and were detained until 340.

339 In March, Athanasius fled Alexandria, the
Eusebian party having again succeeded in having his deposed.
Athanasius visited Rome, accompanied by Egyptian monks.  Thus
monasticism began in the West.

340 Julius, bishop of Rome (337-352)
welcomed Athanasius and Marcellus to communion:   The
presbyters whom Julius had sent to Antioch returned in the spring with an
acrimonious note from the Eusebians.  Julius convoked a council of
Italian bishops.  The council pronounced Athanasius innocent of all
charges.  All other exiles were restored by this synod, including
Marcellus, who was simply required to affirm the Roman baptismal
creed.  Julius then sent a letter to the Eusebians in the name of the
synod.  Julius pointed out that, without his consent, no decision
could be considered universal.  He based his claim to be consulted on
matters dealing with the see of Alexandria on the precedent of Dionysius
(see 259).

As the exiles had been excommunicated by Greek
synods, the East was miffed.

340 Death of Eusebius of Caesarea.  Eusebius
was succeeded by Acacius, who was to become the leader of the
Arians in the East.  In fact, the Arians were sometimes called
Acacians.

340 Birth of St. Ambrose.

341 Eusebius of Constantinople, an Arian (see year
318, above) consecrated Ulfila as bishop to the Goths.  Ulfila held
to the Nicene creed until the council of Rimini (Arminum) in 359.

341 In the summer, Eastern bishops met in
synod at the occasion of a cathedral (Constantine’s Golden Church)
dedication in Antioch.  Julius’ letter from the recent council
at Rome was considered.  The Eastern bishops denied that Rome had a
right to judge decisions reached in the East.

The assembled Eastern bishops drew up three
creeds.  The first had a preface denying that they were followers of
Arius.  This creed does not seem to have been widely
favored.

The second creed is referred to as the “Creed of
the Dedication” or the “Lucianic” creed, alleged to have been
written by Lucian the Martyr (see 312).  The Lucianic creed omitted
the homoousion, but maintained the exact likeness of the Son to the
Father’s essence.  Its anathemas permitted an Arian
interpretation.  Against Marcellus, it insisted on the generation of
the Son before time.  The Lucianic creed (as given by Athanasius in
his de Synodis):

“We believe, conformably to the evangelical and
apostolical tradition, in One God, the Father Almighty, the Framer, and
Maker, and Provider of the Universe, from whom are all
things.

“And in One Lord Jesus Christ, His Son,
Only-begotten God (John 1.18), by whom are all things, who was begotten
before all ages from the Father, God from God, whole from whole, sole from
sole, perfect from perfect, King from King, Lord from Lord, Living Word,
Living Wisdom, true Light, Way, Truth, Resurrection, Shepherd, Door, both
unalterable and unchangeable; exact Image of the Godhead, Essence, Will,
Power and Glory of the Father; the first born of every creature, who was
in the beginning with God, God the Word, as it is written in the Gospel,
`and the Word was God' (John 1.1); by whom all things were made, and in
whom all things consist; who in the last days descended from above, and
was born of a Virgin according to the Scriptures, and was made Man,
Mediator between God and man, and Apostle of our faith, and Prince of
life, as He says, `I came down from heaven, not to do Mine own will, but
the will of Him that sent Me' (John 6.38); who suffered for us and rose
again on the third day, and ascended into heaven, and sat down on the
right hand of the Father, and is coming again with glory and power, to
judge quick and dead.

“And in the Holy Ghost, who is given to those who
believe for comfort, and sanctification, and initiation, as also our Lord
Jesus Christ enjoined His disciples, saying, `Go ye, teach all nations,
baptizing them in the Name of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost'
(Matt. 28.19); namely of a Father who is truly Father, and a Son who is
truly Son, and of the Holy Ghost who is truly Holy Ghost, the names not
being given without meaning or effect, but denoting accurately the
peculiar subsistence, rank, and glory of each that is named, so that they
are three in subsistence, and in agreement one.

“Holding then this faith, and holding it in the
presence of God and Christ, from beginning to end, we anathematize every
heretical heterodoxy. And if any teaches, beside the sound and right faith
of the Scriptures, that time, or season, or age, either is or has been
before the generation of the Son, be he anathema. Or if any one says, that
the Son is a creature as one of the creatures, or an offspring as one of
the offsprings, or a work as one of the works, and not the aforesaid
articles one after another, as the divine Scriptures have delivered, or if
he teaches or preaches beside what we received, be he anathema. For all
that has been delivered in the divine Scriptures, whether by Prophets or
Apostles, do we truly and reverentially both believe and follow.”

The third creed, that of Theophronius of
Tyana, added to the second creed’s insistence on the Son’s pretemporal
generation, his hypostatic pre-existence and eternal kingdom.  It had
an anathema against Marcellus and all who communicated with him or his
supporters (directed at the Italians).

A fourth creed was drawn up several months
after the council had closed, in the autumn of 341.  Julius had
referred Athanasius’ case to Constans, who requested Constantius send
oriental bishops to state their case against Athanasius.  A few
bishops therefore reassembled to send a deputation to Constans.  The
creed they drew up became the basis for subsequent Arian
confessions.  Marcellus was not mentioned, but the eternal reign of
Christ was affirmed.  The Nicene anathemas were modified to attack
Marcellian and admit Arian interpretations of the divine Sonship.
The fourth creed, as given by Athanasius in de Synodis:

“We believe in One God, the Father Almighty,
Creator and Maker of all things; from whom all fatherhood in heaven and on
earth is named. (Eph. 3.15.)

“And in His Only-begotten Son, our Lord Jesus
Christ, who before all ages was begotten from the Father, God from God,
Light from Light, by whom all things were made in the heavens and on the
earth, visible and invisible, being Word, and Wisdom, and Power, and Life,
and True Light; who in the last days was made man for us, and was born of
the Holy Virgin; who was crucified, and dead, and buried, and rose again
from the dead the third day, and was taken up into heaven, and sat down on
the right hand of the Father; and is coming at the consummation of the
age, to judge quick and dead, and to render to every one according to his
works; whose Kingdom endures indissolubly into the infinite ages; for He
shall be seated on the right hand of the Father, not only in this age but
in that which is to come.

“And in the Holy Ghost, that is, the Paraclete;
which, having promised to the Apostles, He sent forth after His ascension
into heaven, to teach them and to remind of all things; through whom also
shall be sanctified the souls of those who sincerely believe in
Him.
“But those who say, that the Son was
from nothing, or from other subsistence and not from God, and, there was
time when He was not, the Catholic Church regards as aliens.”

In the short run, the Arians made use of the fourth
creed (see Sirmium, 351).  The Semi-Arians, or Eastern Conservatives,
increasingly relied on the Lucianic creed.

One might have thought that the phrase ‘before all
ages was begotten’ would militate against the Arian position that the Son
was created.  Yet, Eusebius of Nicomedia was able to hold that the
Son was begotten before time, yet not co-eternal with the Father.
These creeds admitted of an orthodox interpretation, as Hilary noted in
his De Synodis, but were an insufficient filter against
Arianism.

342 The Eastern bishops from the dedication council
of Antioch were refused an audience with Constans.  Apparently,
Constans had already decided that the way to deal with the situation was
with a council, to meet in Sardica.

342 A council at Gangra in Asia Minor disapproved
of monks who abandoned church attendance.

342 Eusebius of Constantinople died.  Two
rivals, Paul and Macedonius, vied for his see.  The Eusebian party
was temporarily leaderless.

342 The Persians began persecuting Christians, and
St. Aphraat (290-370) fled to Edessa.  Aphraat later preached
the Orthodox faith to the Arian emperor Valens.

342/3 The council of Sardica.  The
Easterners were outnumbered by the Westerners.  A dispute arose
immediately over the admission of the deposed bishops.  The Eastern
bishops withdrew to Philippopolis, then condemned Hosius, Julius,
Athanasius, etc., and re-issued the fourth creed from Antioch (341) with
additional anathemas against Marcellus.

The Western bishops asserted the right of Julius of
Rome to hear appeals from bishops under censure in their own
provinces.  They also published a naive theological tract to cover
their admission of Marcellus, to Athanasius’ regret.  All charges
against the exiles were dismissed, and they also denounced Valens of Mursa
and Ursacius of Singidunum (among others), who were attending the Eastern
synod, and who had been companions to Arius during his exile.

In the wake of Sardica, Constantius harshly
persecuted the Nicene bishops in the East.

343 Photinus, bishop of Sirmium in Pannonia,
began teaching his heresy.  He denied the existence of the Son prior
to the incarnation, claiming that the Son and the Logos are
distinct.  He viewed Christ's divinity as something he attained
through moral growth, similar to the view of Paul of Samosata.

343 Beginning of an extended persecution of Christians in the Persian
empire.  It continued for about 50 years.

344 Constans sent two bishops from the Sardican
majority to Constantius to urge him to restore the deposed bishops.
Stephen, bishop of Antioch, attempted to discredit the envoys, but his
deception was found out.  (He had a naked prostitute introduced into
one of the envoys’ rooms, but she, seeing a bishop asleep, refused to
attempt to seduce him, and accused Stephen.)  A council was summoned,
which deposed Stephen.

The council then sent an enlarged version of the
fourth creed from the dedication council of 341 to Italy by way of a
deputation.  This is sometimes referred to as the “Lengthy
Creed.”  The council also mildly condemned certain Arian phrases, but
condemned Marcellus and Photinus, and criticized the Nicene creed for
giving support to their heresies.  Photinus was condemned by the
council of Sirmium in 351.  The fourth (revised) article of the
creed, from Athanasius’ de Synodis:

“But those who say, (1) that the Son was from
nothing, or from other subsistence and not from God; (2) and that there
was a time or age when He was not, the Catholic and Holy Church regards as
aliens.  Likewise those who say, (3) that there are three Gods: (4)
or that Christ is not God; (5) or that before the ages He was neither
Christ nor Son of God; (6) or that Father and Son, or Holy Ghost, are the
same; (7) or that the Son is Ingenerate; or that the Father begat the Son,
not by choice or will; the Holy and Catholic Church anathematizes.”

Understanding that his brother considered it a
cause for war, Constantius discontinued his persecution of the Nicene
bishops.

345 Delegates from the last council of Antioch
attended a council held in Milan.  The Milanese synod
agreed to condemn Photinus, but not Marcellus.  On being asked to
condemn Arianism outright, the Eastern delegates retired in anger.
Valens and Ursacius, in danger of having their Sardican depositions
enforced, submitted.  They admitted that the charges against
Athanasius had been invented.

346 Under strong pressure from Constans, Athanasius
was readmitted to his see in Alexandria, while the West dropped the cause
of Marcellus.

347 Birth of St. John Chrysostom.

347 Two monks living in Antioch, Flavian and
Diodore, promoted the practice of singing the Psalms with short responsory
choruses:  the first Christian litanies.

347/8 Ulfila, the translator of the Bible into
Gothic (this was the first time Christians translated the Scriptures for a
people living outside the Roman empire), left the Gothic lands when the
ruler of the Tervingi, a Gothic tribe, began a persecution of
Christians.  Ulfila brought a large body of Christians into the
empire with him, settling near Nicopolis (Moesia/Bulgaria) on land donated
by the emperor Constantius.

350 Frumentius became bishop of Axum in
Ethiopia.  He was ordained by Athanasius, patriarch of
Alexandria.  Frumentius was the author of the Life of St.
Anthony.  Christianity also spread eastward, as is attested by
the fact that Theophilus of Soccotra in the Gulf of Adem became bishop to
the Christians of southern Arabia in about this year.

350 At around this time Codex Sinaiticus (S,
or Aleph) was written.  It consists of the Septuagint (without 2-3
Maccabees, the Psalms of Solomon, or Psalm 151) plus the 27 New Testament
books, plus Barnabas and Hermas (though it is missing Hermas 31:7 to the
end of the book).  Sinaiticus is of the Alexandrian family, but is
regarded as transmitting a Western text.

Codex Vaticanus (B) also dates from this
era.  It includes the LXX without 1-4 Maccabees, Psalm 151, or the
Psalms of Solomon.  Gen 1-46:28 and Psalm 105:27-137:6 are
missing.  It also includes the 27 New Testament books, except for 1
Timothy through Philemon, and Hebrews 9:14 through the end.  As with
Sinaiticus, it is an Alexandrian document.

Before approximately this time, most books were in
the form of scrolls.  Scrolls had severe limitations.  For
instance, a book the size of Matthew’s gospel would fit on a scroll.
A codex, formed by folding sheets of papyrus or vellumin the middle and
sewing them together at the spine, could contain much larger works.
Codices also eased the task of locating a given passage.

The earliest extant Old Latin manuscript -
designated as "a" - dates from this period also.

350 Constans, emperor in the West, murdered by
Magnentius.  Constantius was sole emperor by the fall of
351.

350 Around this time (348-50) Cyril of Jerusalem
(elected bishop in 350) produced the Mystagogical Catecheses
for new believers.  He described the church service as
follows:

“Then having sanctified ourselves by these
spiritual hymns, we call upon the merciful God to send forth his Holy
Spirit upon the gifts lying before him:  that he may make the bread
the body of Christ, and the wine the blood of Christ, for whatever the
Holy Spirit has touched is sanctified and changed.  Then after the
spiritual sacrifice is perfected, the bloodless service upon that
sacrifice of propitiation, we entreat God for the common peace of the
Church, for the tranquility of the world, for kings, for soldiers and
allies, for the sick, for the afflicted; and in a word for all who stand
in need of succour we all supplicate and offer this sacrifice.  Then
we commemorate also those who have fallen asleep before us, first
patriarchs, prophets, apostles, martyrs, that at their prayers and
intervention God would receive our petition.  Afterwards, also on
behalf of the holy fathers and bishops who have fallen asleep before us,
and in a word of all who in past years have fallen asleep among us,
believing that it will be a very great advantage to the souls, for whom
the supplication is put up, while that holy and most awful sacrifice is
presented.”

Cyril’s Old Testament canon was the Hebrew Old
Testament plus Baruch and “the Epistle” – now included as the last chapter
of Baruch.  However, he also quoted from Wisdom and Sirach as though
he considered them Scripture.  His New Testament list omits only
Revelation, and includes no books not now accepted.

Cyril was Orthodox, as is clear from his teachings
on the Trinity in the Mystagogical Catecheses.  He was
temporarily deposed through the intrigues of Acacius (the Arian bishop of
Caesarea) around the year 357, but seems to have been reinstated by the
council of Seleucia in 359.  Cyril attended the Council of
Constantinople in 381, recognized as one of the leaders of the
orthodox.