RADIOACTIVE HALOS IN A RADIOCHRONOLOGICAL AND COSMOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVE

Robert V. Gentry*
Columbia Union College
Takoma Park,
Maryland 20012

If the earth was created, it is axiomatic that created (primordial)
rocks must now exist on the earth, and if there was a Flood there must now
exist sedimentary rocks and other evidences of that event. But, if the
general uniformitarian principle is correct, the universe evolved to its
present state only by the unvarying action of known physical laws and all
natural phenomena must fit into the evolutionary mosaic. If this
fundamental principle is wrong, all the pieces in the evolutionary mosaic
become unglued. Evidence that something is drastically wrong comes from
the fact that this basic evolutionary premise has failed to provide a
verifiable explanation for the widespread occurrence of Po halos in
Precambrian granites, a phenomena which I suggest are in situ evidences
that those rocks were created almost instantaneously in accord with Psalm
33:6,9: "By the word of the Lord were the heavens made; and all the host
of them by the breath of his mouth. For he spake, and it was done; he
commanded, and it stood fast." I have challenged my colleagues to
synthesize a piece of granite with 218Po halos as a means of
falsifying this interpretation, but have not received a response. It is
logical that this synthesis should be possible if the uniformitarian
principle is true. Underdeveloped U halos in coalified wood having high
U/Pb ratios are cited evidences for a Flood-related recent (within the
past few thousand years) emplacement of geological formations thought to
be more than 100,000,000 years old. Results of differential He analyses of
zircons taken from deep granite cores are evidence for a recently created,
several-thousand-year-age of the earth. A creation model with three
singularities, involving events beyond explanation by known physical laws,
is proposed to account for these evidences. The first singularity is the
ex nihilo creation of our galaxy nearly 6000 years ago. Finally, a
new model for the structure of the universe is proposed based on the idea
that all galaxies, including the Milky Way, are revolving about the Center
of the universe, which from Psalm 103:19 I equate with the fixed location
of God's throne. This model requires an absolute reference frame in the
universe whereas modern Big Bang cosmology mandates there is no Center
(the Cosmological Principle) and no absolute reference frame (the theory
of relativity). The notion of the solar system through the cosmic
microwave radiation is cited as unequivocal evidence for the existence of
an absolute reference frame.

Figure 1. The scale for all photomicrographs is 1 cm = 25 :m, except for (h’) and (r’), which are
enlargements of (h) and (r). (a) Schematic drawing of 238U halo
with radii proportional to ranges of alpha particles in air. (b) Schematic
of 21OPo halo. (e) Coloration band formed in mica by 7.7-MeV
4He ions. Arrow shows direction of beam penetration. (f) A
238U halo in biotite formed by sequential alpha decay of the
238U decay series. (g) Embryonic 238U halo in
fluorite with only two rings developed. (h) Normally developed
238U halo in fluorite with nearly all rings visible. (h') Same
halo as in (h) but at higher magnification. (i) Well developed
238U halo in fluorite with slightly blurred rings. (j)
Overexposed 238U halo in fluorite, showing inner ring
obliteration. (k) Two overexposed 238U halos in fluorite,
showing outer ring reversal effects. (m) Second-stage reversal in a
238U halo in fluorite. The ring sizes are unrelated to
238U alpha particle ranges. (n) Three 21OPo halos of
light, medium, and very dark coloration in biotite. Note the difference in
radius. (o) Three 210Po halos of varying degrees of coloration
in fluorite. (p) A 214Po halo in biotite. (q) Two
218Po halos in biotite. (r) Two 218Po halos in
fluorite. (r') Same halos as in (r) but at higher magnification.
(Reprinted from ref. (2) by permission of the AAAS.)

URANIUM AND THORIUM RADIOHALOS IN MINERALS

A radioactive halo is generally defined as any type of
discolored, radiation-damaged region within a mineral and usually results
from either alpha or, more rarely, beta emission from a central
radioactive inclusion. When the central inclusions, or radiocenters, are
small (1 :m), the U and Th daughter
alpha emitters produce a series of discolored concentric spheres, which in
thin section appear microscopically as concentric rings whose radii
correspond to the ranges of the various alpha emitters in the mineral.

Ordinary radiohalos are herein defined as those which
initiate with 238U and/or 232Th alpha decay (1),
irrespective of whether the actual U or Th halo closely matches the
respective idealized alpha decay patterns. In a few instances the match is
very good.

Compare, for example, the idealized U halo ring pattern
in Fig. 1a with the well developed U halos in biotite (Fig. 1f) and
fluorite (Fig. 1h,h'); these halos have ring sizes that agree very well
(1,2) with the 4He ion accelerator-induced coloration bands in
these minerals (see Table 1). In general a halo ring can be assigned to a
definite alpha emitter with confidence only when the halo radiocenter is
about 1:m in size.

In other cases, however, such as the halos in fluorite
(1,2) shown in Fig. 1(g, i-m), much work was required before these halos
could be reliably associated with U alpha decay (2). As explained
elsewhere (2), reversal effects accompanying extreme radiation damage
caused the appearance of rings that could not be associated with definite
alpha emitters of the U decay chain. Thus some halos may exhibit a ring
structure different from the idealized U and/or Th alpha decay patterns
because of reversal effects. And even though most other halos exhibit
blurred ring structures due to the large size of the inclusions,
nevertheless the outer dimensions allow them to be classified as U and/or
Th types.

Modern analytical techniques such as Scanning Electron
Microscope X Ray Fluo-resence (SEMXRF) and Ion Microprobe Mass
Spectrometry (IMMA) methods have been utilized to show that U and Th and
their respective end-product isotopes of Pb are contained within the U and
Th halo radiocenters. As is noted shortly, these modern analytical
techniques have proved quite valuable in demonstrating that Po halo
radiocenters in minerals contain little or no U or Th, which is in direct
contrast to the abundance of these elements detected in the U and/or Th
halo radiocenters (2,3).

RADIOACTIVE HALOS AND THE QUESTION OF INVARIANT DECAY
RATES

A most important question pertaining to the
evolution/creation issue is whether radioactive decay rates have remained
invariant during the course of earth history. If they have,
geochronologists are justified in interpreting various parent/daughter
isotope ratios found in undisturbed rocks in terms of elapsed time. If on
the other hand there have been periods in earth history where the decay
rate was higher (i. e., during a singularity), then in general the isotope
ratios in rocks would not reflect elapsed time except in the specific case
where secondary rocks or substances containing only the parent
radio-nuclide formed at the end of the most recent singularity. The
practical significance of this last statement will be evident in the
discussion of the secondary, U halos found in coalified wood specimens
from the Colorado Plateau.

Even though most of Joly's (4) measurements of U and Th
halos showed their radii were about the sizes expected from the alpha
decay energies of the U and Th decay chains, nevertheless he claimed there
were slight discrepancies which raised questions about whether the
radioactive decay rate had been constant over geological time. His result
was not confirmed however by later halo radii measurements (5-10), which
agreed to within experimental error with the theoretical sizes. To
eliminate any uncertainty about this correspondence I irradiated specimens
of various minerals with He ion beams of varying energies to produce
different size coloration bands whose widths corresponded to the various
alpha energies of the U decay chain. The results of these experiments,
presented in Table 1, show there is excellent agreement between the U and
Th halo radii and equivalent He ion produced penetration depths (2).

The basis for thinking that standard size U and Th halos
imply an invariant decay rate throughout geological time proceeds from the
quantum mechanical treatment of alpha decay, which in general shows that
the probability for alpha decay for a given nuclide is dependent on the
energy with which the alpha particle is emitted from the nucleus. The
argument is that if the decay rate had varied in the past, then the U and
Th halo rings would be of different size now because the energies of the
alpha particles would have been different during the period of change.
This argument assumes that a change in the decay rate must necessarily be
explainable by quantum mechanics, which is of course an integral part of
the uniformitarian framework. Thus, the usual proof of decay rate
invariance based on standard size U and Th halos is nothing more than a
circular argument which assumes the general uniformitarian principle is
correct. In fact, the failure of the uniformitarian principle to explain
the evidence for creation presented herein invalidates the basis for the
above proof.

POLONIUM, DWARF, AND GIANT HALOS IN MINERALS

Of the three types of unusual halos that appear distinct
from those formed by U and/or Th alpha decay, only the Po halos, Fig.1
(b-d, n-r, r’), can presently be identified with known alpha radioactivity
(1-3,11-13). Po halos occupy a special niche in my creation model, and
these halos will be discussed in more detail subsequently. Several lines
of evidence which indicate the enigmatic dwarf halos (see Fig. 2) were
produced by some presently unidentified radioactivity have been summarized
(1,12,14,15). The rapid etch from HF and the K/Ca inversion are strongly
characteristic of highly radiation-damaged regions.

The characteristics of the giant halos found in a certain
Madagascan mica have also been summarized (1,14,16), and while no
definitive evidence as yet exists for a radioactive origin, some halos
with opaque inclusions in this same mica exhibit isotopic anomalies which
raise questions about the uniformity of U and Th alpha decay. For example,
the mass scans and x-ray fluorescence analyses shown in Fig. 3 clearly
indicate that, whereas both the monazite and opaque inclusions exhibit
206Pb and 207Pb from U decay, the opaque inclusions
exhibit a marked deficiency of 208Pb from 232Th
decay (14).

SECONDARY RADIOHALOS IN COALIFIED WOOD

All the various types of halos discussed thus far are
termed primary halos because they developed from alpha radioactivity
emanating from small accessory inclusions that were present when the
mineral crystallized. But secondary halos also exist in pieces of
coalified wood taken from highly uraniferous deposits in the Colorado
Plateau. There is abundant evidence that U solutions infiltrated much of
the sedimentary material in the geological formations of that region when
the wood was still in a gel-like condition (17). When U-bearing solutions
passed through pieces of wood, certain active sites within these specimens
preferentially collected U, other sites collected rare earth type
elements, and still others Se, Po, and Pb. It is quite significant that
the U halos, which developed around the tiny U-rich sites, are all
underdeveloped, which, on the basis of a uniform decay rate (the rationale
for using this assumption for these specimens will be explained
subsequently), suggests only a relatively short time since U infiltration.
Ion microprobe mass scans of these U halo centers have shown extremely
high 238U/206Pb ratios, which, again on the
assumption of a uniform decay rate, is consistent with a U infiltration
within the last several thousand years (17).

Similar underdeveloped U halos have been found in the
coalified wood from the Chattanooga Shale, and in fact recent ion
microprobe analyses show, in agreement with earlier results (17), that the
238U/206Pb ratios of the U halos in the Colorado
Plateau samples (Eocene, Triassic, and Jurassic) and the Chattanooga Shale
(Devonian) are virtually indistinguishable. These results suggest that
U-infiltration occurred concurrently in all these formations.

Another class of more sharply defined halos was also
discovered in the Colorado Plateau coalified wood specimens (17). The
centers of these halos exhibit a distinct metallic-like reflectance when
viewed with reflected light. Three different varieties of this halo exist:
one with a circular cross section, another with an elliptical cross
section with variable major and minor axes, and a third most unusual one
that is actually a dual halo, being a composite of a circular and an
elliptical halo around exactly the same radio-center (see Figs. 4-6).

Although the elliptical halos differ radically from the
circular halos in minerals, the circular type resembles the
21OPo halo in minerals and variations in the radii of circular
halos approximate the calculated penetrated distances (26 to 31 :m) of the 21OPo alpha particle
(energy E = 5.3 MeV) in this coalified wood (17). Henderson (18) theorized
that Po halos might form in minerals when U-daughter Po isotopes or their
alpha precursors were preferentially accumulated into small inclusions
from some nearby U source. This hypothesis has not been confirmed for the
origin of three distinct types of Po halos in U-poor minerals (1, 2, 11),
but it does seem to provide a reasonable explanation for the origin of
210Po halos in U-rich coalified wood specimens.

Electron microscope x-ray fluorescence analyses showed
these halo centers were mainly Pb and Se. This composition fits well into
the secondary accumulation hypothesis for both of the U-daughters,
210Po (half-life, t½ = 138 days) and its beta
precursor 21OPb (t½ = 22 y), possess the two
characteristics that are vitally essential for the hypothesis: (i)
chemical similarity with the elements in the inclusion and (ii) half-lives
sufficiently long to permit accumulation prior to decay, a requirement
related to the nuclide transport rate.

What is the meaning of the 21OPo halos in
Figs. 4-6? Clearly, the variations in shape can be attributed to plastic
deformation which occurred prior coalification. Since the model for
210Po formation thus envisions that both 210Po and
21OPb were accumulating simultaneously in the Pb-Se inclusion,
a spherical 21OPo halo could develop in 0.5 to 1 year from the
21OPo atoms initially resent and a second similar
21OPo halo could develop in 25 to 50 years as the
21OPb atoms more slowly beta decayed to produce another crop of
210Po atoms. If there was no deformation of the matrix between
these periods, the two 21OPo halos would simply coincide. If,
however, the matrix was deformed between the two periods of halo
formation, then the first halo would have been compressed into an
ellipsoid, and the second would be a normal sphere. The result would be a
dual "halo" (Fig. 6). The widespread occurrence of these dual halos in
both Triassic and Jurassic specimens can actually be considered
corroborative evidence for a one-time introduction of U into these
formations, because it is then possible to account for their structure on
the basis of a single specifically timed tectonic event (17).

HALOS IN COALIFIED WOOD: A FLOOD-RELATED PHENONENA

A worldwide Flood, which is postulated to have occurred
about 1650 years after creation, is the third singularity in the creation
model proposed herein. I have advanced the hypothesis that the
underdeveloped U halos in both the Colorado Plateau and Chattanooga Shale
coalified wood specimens exhibit very high U/Pb ratios because the uranium
infiltration of the wood occurred only when those geological deposits were
being emplaced at the time of the Flood several thousand years ago,
instead of the 60 to 400 millions of years ago accepted by uniformitarian
geology. I suggest at least part of the U-series disequilibria (19) found
in the Colorado Plateau U deposits is because some U-daughter radionuclide
separation occurred at the time of the Flood, and there has been
insufficient time since then to reestablish equilibrium conditions.

The high U/Pb ratios and secondary 21OPo halos
in the coalified wood samples from the Eocene epoch and the Triassic and
Jurassic periods suggest to me that the wood in all these formations was
in the same gel-like condition when infiltrated by the U-bearing
solutions. To me these data represent evidence for a concurrent,
single-stage invasion of U into all the different geological formations
represented by the coalified wood samples. This is precisely what would be
expected on the basis of a Flood-related phenomena.

The dual Po halos also fit well into the Flood scenario,
i.e. the presence of a spherical and elliptical Po halo around the same
radiocenter suggests a tectonic event occurred within 50 years after the
initial infiltration of uranium into the wood samples. A readjustment of
the earth's crust after such a massive event is not unexpected. Another
implication of the existence of 210Po halos in these specimens
is that the transformation of the wood to a semi-coal-like condition must
have occurred within a period of about one year. This evidence for a rapid
coalification process is in contrast to the generally accepted view that
coalification is a long-term geological process.

THREE TYPES OF POLONIUM HALOS IN MINERALS

Now there are two other Po isotopes (214Po and
218Po) in the U decay chain besides 210Po, but no
halos representative of these other Po isotopes have been found in
coalified wood. This is not surprising, because the half-lives of the
other Po isotopes are rather short, i.e., t½ = 3m for
218Po and t½ = 164 :s for 214Po as are the
half-lives of the beta precursors of 214Po, i.e. t½
= 26.4 m for 214Pb and t½ = 19.8 m for
214Bi (the precursor of 218Po is the inert gas
222Rn). What is surprising is that all the three types of Po
halos occur in certain minerals which typically contain orders of
magnitude less uranium than the U-rich coalified wood. Further, the
minerals such as biotite and fluorite must have diffusion rates
considerably lower than those expected for a U-solution-infiltrated
specimens of gel-like wood. Figure 7 shows the idealized structure of the
different Po halos in comparison with the U halo.

Photographic evidence relating to the existence of
different types of Po halos in minerals is shown in Fig. 1. Figure 1(n)
shows three 21OPo halos of light, medium, and very dark
coloration. The slightly higher radii for the darker halos is attributable
to the higher dose. Figure 1(o) shows three different 21OPo
halos in fluorite. Figure 1(p) shows a 214Po halo in biotite,
and Fig. 1(q) shows two 218Po halos in biotite. Comparison of
these halos with the idealized ring structure in Fig. 7 shows that Po
halos in minerals can be clearly identified by ring structure studies
alone. The data in Table 1 shows there is an excellent agreement between
the experimentally produced He ion produced coloration bands and the Po
halo ring radii.

An important observation from Fig. 7 is that in the
idealized 238U and 218Po patterns, it is evident
that the 222Rn ring should be missing from the 218Po
halo and resent in the 238U halo. Figures 8 and 9 show the
presence of the 222Rn ring in the U halo in contrast to its
absence in the 218Po halo. This is unequivocal evidence that
the 218Po halo initiated with 218Po rather than with
any earlier alpha emitter in the U decay chain. Figures 10 and 11 show
214Po halos and 218Po halos in different types of
biotite.

Henderson's (18) original idea that Po halos in
minerals may have originated from a secondary source of radioactivity
encounters formidable obstacles when closely examined. In most cases the
minerals contain only ppm abundances of uranium, which means only a
negligible supply of Po daughter atoms is available for capture at any
given time. To form a halo these daughter atoms must migrate or diffuse so
they can be captured at a collecting site, a problem which is compounded
by the low diffusion rates in minerals (11, 20, 21). Despite these
objections, in 1979 several investigators suggested their results (22)
might provide support for secondary Po halo formation in minerals after
all. They were apparently unaware that three years earlier I had reported
the experimental observation of secondary 21OPo halos in
coalified wood (17). In that report I discussed how even under the most
favorable conditions (i. e., an abundant supply of U-daughters in a highly
mobile environment) for the formation of secondary Po halos, only the
longer half-life 21OPo halos actually formed, the reason being
that the shorter half-life Po isotopes generally decayed away before they
could be captured at the tiny Pb-Se sites. If these other two Po halo
types didn't form under the best conditions in the gel-like wood, how
could it be expected they would form naturally in the granites where
diffusion rates are vastly lower and the supply of Po atoms is
negligible?

The identity of U, Th and Po halos in minerals has been
confirmed by analyzing the various types of halo radiocenters using
scanning electron microscope x-ray fluorescence (SEMXRF) and ion
microprobe mass spectrometric (IMMA) techniques (2, 3). Studies of various
Po halo radiocenters in biotite and fluorite have generally shown little
or no U in conjunction with anomalously high
206Pb/-207Pb and/or Pb/U ratios which would be
expected from the decay of Po without the U precursor which normally
occurs in U radiohalo centers (2,3). These results were obtained clearly
in the analysis (3) of the most unusual array of Po halos which I ever
found. That array, shown in Figure 12, has the appearance of a pair of
spectacles, hence the designation 'Spectacle Halo.' The Spectacle Halo
appearance compounds the problem of explaining its existence on the basis
of known physical laws. In conclusion, in spite of attempts to define them
out of existence (23), there is demonstrable evidence that Po halos do
exist as separate entities (1-3).

POLONIUM HALOS IN MINERALS: AN INDEPENDENT
EVALUATION

Because of the implications which will be attributed to
the presence of Po halos in minerals, it is important that my colleagues
be apprised of the independent investigation of these phenomena by
Professor Norman Feather. In an exhaustive theoretical treatment (24) of
the problem concerning their origin in minerals, Feather concludes it is
difficult to account for the existence of Po halos in certain minerals on
the basis of known physical principles. His exact words, as given in the
synopsis of his paper, are as follows:

Ever since the discovery of Po-haloes in old mica
(Henderson and Sparks 1939) the problem of their origin has remained
essentially unsolved. Two suggestions have been made (Henderson 1939;
Gentry et al. 1973), but neither carries immediate conviction. These
suggestions are examined critically and in detail, and the difficulties
attaching to the acceptance of either are identified. Because these two
suggestions appear to exhaust the logical possibilities of explanation, it
is tempting to admit that one of them must be basically correct, but
whoever would make this admission must be fortified by credulity of a high
order.

POLONIUM HALOS AND PRIMORDIAL ROCKS: A TEST OF THE
HYPOTHESIS

I have advanced the hypothesis (25,26) that the three
different types of Po halos in minerals represent the decay of primordial
Po, in which case the rocks that host these halos, i.e., the Precambrian
granites, must be primordial rocks (25,26). By this reasoning the
Precambrian granites are identified as rocks that were created almost
instantly as a part of the creation event recorded in Genesis 1:1 rather
than rocks that are a product of the evolution of the earth. This
rationale would be without scientific content if I had not also stated
(25) that the laboratory synthesis of a hand-sized piece of granite or
biotite would be accepted as falsifying my view that the Precambrian
granites are created rocks and, likewise, that the subsequent production
of 218Po halos in that synthesized specimen of granite or
biotite would be accepted as falsifying my view that Po halos in
Precambrian granites originated with primordial polonium. The only
response to my repeated (25,26) challenges to perform these laboratory
syntheses and falsify the aforementioned evidences for creation has thus
far been silence. It is inescapable that these experiments should be
successful if the uniformitarian principle is true. Thus, with so much at
stake for evolution, I suspect the reason why my evolutionary colleagues
have failed to achieve success is because the Precambrian granites never
formed by the uniformitarian principle to begin with; hence, to attempt to
utilize it now to produce a synthesized piece of granite is just a futile
effort. The end result is that the uniformitarian principle is essentially
falsified because of its failure to live up to its own predictions. But
since all the pieces in the evolutionary puzzle are glued together by this
principle, we must now come to the same conclusion about evolution
itself.

A PROPOSED CREATION MODEL AND THE AGE OF THE EARTH

The evidence for creation cited above suggests there may
have been special periods in earth history when physical laws as presently
understood were insufficient to explain all the events transpiring within
those periods. This evidence also undergirds the formulation of a creation
model based on the Judeo-Christian ethic. The creation model proposed
herein postulates that on at least three occasions (singularities) during
the past 6000 years there were significant exceptions to the
uniformitarian principle within our local cosmos (the Milky Way), viz.,
the ex nihilo creation of our galaxy about 6000 years ago, the Fall of man
shortly thereafter, and the occurrence of a worldwide Flood about 4350
years ago. These ages are derived from Scriptural chronology. It is
assumed that the creative act which brought the Milky Way into existence
also caused the immediate propagation of light throughout the galaxy. No
constraints are placed on the age of the universe.

Singularities and Uniformities: A Complementary
Approach

It is essential to understand that uniform action of
physical laws between singularities is an integral part of this
creation model. Moreover, the occurrence of a singularity does not mean a
completely chaotic condition without any laws to govern the operations of
nature during that period. During the Flood singularity some physical
processes may not have changed at all whereas there is evidence others
varied considerably. An enhanced radioactive decay rate during the Flood
singularity would have generated a considerable amount of heat, thus
initiating volcanic and tectonic activity during and after that period.
This three-singularity model appears to be the minimum framework that
includes the essential features of the Genesis narrative. Possibly the
continent-separating episode recorded in Genesis 10:25, when the earth was
divided in the days of Peleg a few hundred years after the Flood, should
also be included as a singularity; certainly it must figure prominently in
any creation-based reconstruction of earth history that deals with
continental drift. However, to simplify matters, the following comments
exclude consideration of this event.

Singularities and the interpretation of Radioactive Decay
as Elapsed Time

In summary, the creation model envisions an initial
creation singularity followed by a short period of uniformity until the
second singularity, an event which involved degenerative changes in the
biological world and quite possibly modification of some of the original
physical laws which governed the earth and our near celestial environment.
Another period of uniformity follows, with the modified physical laws now
in effect, for about 1600 years down to the longer-duration Flood
singularity. The last period of uniformity extends down to the present. In
this scenario U/Pb ratios are presently utilized as indicators of elapsed
time since the last singularity . 238U/206Pb
ratios are not used as time measures prior to this last singularity
because of conflicting evidence of very high Pb and He retention in
natural zircons subjected to a prolonged high temperature environment in
deep granite. Those results, discussed below, are consistent with a very
young age of the earth, and suggest that the radioactive decay rate may
have been enhanced (indeed, had to be if this creation model is correct)
during any one of the three singularities. (The Peleg episode potentially
adds one more possibility.) The assumption of uniform decay since the
Flood is the basis for interpreting the very high U/Pb ratios in coalified
wood samples as evidence for a several-thousand-year age of specimens
which conventional geology holds to be about 60 to 400 million years
old.

Possible Evidence of Enhanced Radioactive Decay from
'Blasting' Halos

Additional evidence for an enhanced radioactive decay
rate comes from Ramdohr's observations on fractured radioactive halos in
polished ore sections. He reports (27) that certain radioactive
inclusions, which exhibit a considerable volume increase due to
isotropization from radioactive decay, have in numerous cases been
observed to fracture the surrounding mineral in a random pattern. Ramdohr
points out that the surrounding mineral should expand slowly over
geological time due to radioactive isotropization, and individual cracks
should appear as soon as the elastic limit is reached. He further points
out that, while these expansion cracks should occur first along cohesion
minimums and grain boundaries, nothing like this happens. Individual
cracks surrounding the radioactive inclusion are randomly distributed and
evidently occur quite suddenly in the form of an explosive fracture and
not a slow expansion. Ramdohr shows many photographs of instances wherein
the central inclusion fractures the non-isotropic outer zone. The
occurrence of this phenomenon is worldwide.

While there might be other alternatives, one possible
explanation of these "fractures" or "blasting" halos is that the rate of
radioactive decay was at one time far greater than that observed today.
The isotropization of the host minerals would have occurred very rapidly
due to an anomalous decay rate, and hence fracturing of the outer mineral
would be expected.

The Age of the Earth and Pb Retention in Deep Granite
Cores

Results pertaining more specifically to a recent creation
of the earth come from studies of Pb retention in zircons taken from deep
Precambrian granite cores (28). To understand the rationale for this last
statement, it must first be understood that the Pb in these zircons is
primarily a secondary trace component derived from the decay of small
amounts of U and Th. Secondly, this radiogenic Pb has a tendency to
migrate or diffuse out of the zircon crystals far more rapidly than the
parent U and Th because these elements are relatively tightly bound in
lattice sites, whereas the Pb atoms really do not fit into the zircon
lattice. Further, since all elements show an exponential increase in the
bulk diffusion rate with increasing temperature, and since the temperature
in the granite cores increases significantly from near the top (105°C) to
the bottom (313°C) of the granite portion of the drill hole, calculations
show that 50 :m-size zircons taken
from the bottom of the drill hole (313°C) should have lost 1% of their Pb
content in about 300,000 years. Since the zircons were in cores taken from
a Precambrian granite that is estimated to be 1.5 billion years old by
conventional geochronology (29), the prediction based on uniformitarian
geochronology would be that most of the Pb would have long ago diffused
out of the zircons extracted from the deepest cores at 313°C. But the
results of the experiments did not agree with this prediction; rather they
showed equally high retention of Pb in zircons taken from all depths. In
fact no Pb loss from zircons at 313°C would appear to place an upper limit
to the age of this Precambrian granite, which, on the presumption that
these granites are primordial rocks, in essence places the same limit on
the age of the earth.

The Age of the Earth: Limited by Helium Retention in Deep
Granite Cores

Another approach which seemed to hold greater prospects
for more closely defining an upper limit for the age of these Precambrian
granites (and hence of the earth) was the differential analysis of similar
size zircons from these same cores for helium, the second most volatile
chemical element known. The helium accumulates in these zircons in a
manner similar to the radiogenic Pb, viz., from the alpha particles
emitted from trace amounts of U and Th. However, the extreme volatility of
this gas means that it diffuses out of the zircons at a far greater rate
than Pb. On a purely uniformitarian basis the search for helium in these
zircons would quite possibly never have been done because conventional
geological wisdom suggests negligible helium retention in zircons
subjected to even 100°C for the presumed 1.5 billion year age (29) of
those granites. But having already discovered that the Pb retention in
these zircons contradicted the age estimates determined by radiometric
dating techniques, I decided that, from a creationist perspective, the
search might just reveal something of exceptional interest. Groups of
zircons from six different depths were repeatedly analyzed for helium
using an extremely sensitive gas mass spectrometric system. The results
(30) showed a helium retention of about 58% in the tiny 50 :m zircons from 960 meters depth (105°C),
about 27% in zircons from 2170 meters (151°C) and a phenomenal 17%
retention of helium even at 2900 meters where the temperature is 197°C.
These results show a creation-based perspective of science does possess
predictive capabilities which can be scientifically tested.

It is difficult to understand how such high retention
(30) of helium can be accounted for except by restricting the age of these
granites (and hence the earth) to something of the order of several
thousand years. These results are consistent with an approximate 6000-year
age of the earth and moreover are in direct conflict with the presumed
4.5-billion-year age of the earth determined by radioactive dating
techniques. Evolutionary colleagues can prove this deduction for a young
age of the earth is wrong if they can show just how this unusually high
retention of helium can be deduced from the accepted 1.5-billion-year age
(29) of those zircons by using only uniformitarian principles.

A CREATION MODEL OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE UNIVERSE

Decades of research in astronomy and cosmology have led
to the general belief that the present state of the universe can
ultimately be traced to an initial event popularly known as the Big Bang.
Despite this popularity it should be remembered that the Big Bang
cosmological model is only as valid as the fundamental premises which
support it. Thus the discussion of the proposed creation model of the
universe must necessarily also focus on the validity of the Big Bang
theory, whose basic framework consists of the cosmological and
uniformitarian principles together with the general theory of relativity.
The previous sections of this article have documented the failure of the
uniformitarian principle to provide confirmation for the geological
evolution of the Precambrian granites. If this principle cannot account
for the evolution of the earth, is it difficult to understand how it can
provide a rational basis for constructing an evolutionary model of the
universe. It may be argued, however, that the edifice of modern cosmology
fits together too well for there to be something wrong with basic
assumptions. This point will receive close examination in the following
discussion of the hot Big Bang Model (31,32).

The Big Bang Model and the Bubble Relation

About 50 years ago Hubble proposed that the astronomical
data then available seemed to linearly relate the redshift z of a galaxy
with the distance R to the galaxy, and this has become known as the Hubble
relation. Since then galactic redshifts have been mainly interpreted as
Doppler shifts resulting from high recessional velocities of the distant
galaxies and, moreover, have been generally thought to provide some of the
strongest evidence for the hot Big Bang model of an expanding universe.
(See, however, Hetherington's evaluation (33) of the Hubble relation.) The
reason for confidence in this interpretation is that by using the general
theory of relativity as the mathematical basis for calculating the
space-time development of the primeval fireball, it is possible to derive
the z % R Hubble relation (31,32) provided
certain assumptions are made.

Notwithstanding the general belief that the accumulated
astronomical data do support a z % R
relation, the fact is that over the past two decades several detailed
studies of redshift distributions have been published which call the
Hubble relation into question. As early as 1962 Hawkins (34) claimed that
the redshift data indicated an approximate quadratic-distance redshift
relation, in particular z % R2.22.
More recently the case for a z %
R2 relation (for low z) was considerably reinforced by
the extensive statistical analyses of Segal (35) and of Nicoll and Segal
(36). Even though these latter results have been disputed by Sandage et
al. (37), it appears that Nicoll and Segal (38) have responded with
stronger evidence for a z % R2
relation. In fact, Nicoll et al. (39) have gone so far as to claim
statistical invalidation of the Hubble relation for low values of z. At a
minimum the foregoing results make it very difficult to believe that the
redshift data as presently interpreted actually support the Hubble
relation, which is the cornerstone of Big Bang cosmology.

As noted above, the latest analyses of Nicoll and Segal
(38) show the redshift data more closely fit what is thought to be the
equivalent of a quadratic rather than a linear distance relation. The
reason for qualifying the last statement is because astronomers measure
not distances but apparent magnitudes, which are first corrected for
various factors before being used as a basis for establishing the
magnitude-redshift relation. One important correction involves the
assumption that the galactic light intensity (for any given frequency
interval) as observed on earth is reduced by two factors of 1+z, one for
the redshift itself, and the other for the presumed galactic recession. Of
course if the galaxies are not receding, then an unwarranted factor has
been introduced into the magnitude correction procedures, and this would
affect the perceived redshift distributions.

The Big Bang Model and the Cosmic Microwave Radiation
(CMR)

In 1978 Penzias and Wilson received the Nobel prize in
physics for their discovery of the CMR in 1965. Since then it has been
widely claimed that this pervasive radiation field is a relic of the time
eons ago when radiation quanta decoupled from matter in the primeval
fireball (31). According to this theory, the decoupling presumably
occurred about 300,000 years after the Big Bang when the primeval fireball
had expanded and its temperature had dropped to the point where matter and
radiation ceased to interact as it had before. After this time, supposedly
about 15 billion years ago, it is believed that this radiation propagated
throughout space in an unobstructed fashion to eventually become the CMR.
It is essential to note that the radiation leaving the primeval fireball
at the time of decoupling was presumably still quite hot (about 3000°K).
The experimental measurements of the CMR temperature at present reveal
that it is very cold (3°K). But if the radiation from the primeval
fireball is assumed not to interact with matter after the time of
decoupling, then how did this initially hot radiation lose its energy, or
temperature, to later become the 3°K CMR. The standard explanation is that
the general relativistic analysis of the space-time expansion of the
primeval fireball predicts that the decoupled radiation quanta will lose
energy just as a result of the expansion of the universe. There is,
however, nothing in modern experimental physics which suggests that
radiation quanta change energy by moving through free space. Thus, the
standard explanation for this remarkable thousand-fold energy loss in the
decoupled radiation quanta depends upon an aspect of general relativity
that is unsupported by scientific evidence.

To avoid possible misunderstandings, some recent
experimental results of gravitational effects on photons will be
discussed. Einstein's principle of equivalence, which is independent of
general relativity, does not distinguish whether a photon traversing a
gravitational potential gradient undergoes a change in energy in transit,
or whether its energy is uniquely determined by the gravitational
potential at the point of emission. The earliest Mossbauer experiments
(40) on the gravitational redshift could not distinguish between these two
alternatives, and it was widely believed that the photon energy could
change when passing through a difference in gravitational potential. But
recent experimental results (41) suggest the photon energy is
characterized by the gravitational potential at the point of emission
rather than varying as the photon moves to a different potential. In the
light of these results it is quite difficult for me to believe that
radiation quanta can undergo energy loss in free space as predicted in the
general relativistic Big Bang model. At this point my views on the theory
of relativity need to be clarified.

I recognize there are some notable experimental results
in physics such as apparent time dilation, the transverse Doppler effect,
the increase in mass with velocity, and the gravitational bending of
light, which are in accord with the predictions of the theory of
relativity. However, these experimental results cannot be used as
confirmations of the special or general theory of relativity because there
are other (albeit far lesser known) theories which predict similar
results. (See for instance North's (42) review of various alternative
theories of gravitation and their predictions.) Further, recently Rastall
(43) and especially Marinov (44) have shown independently that it is not
necessary to assume the general relativistic framework to obtain many of
the same mathematical results. On the other hand, the question of whether
the Big Bang model is a correct description of the origin and evolutionary
development of the universe is entirely hinged on the ultimate validity of
general relativity's fundamental postulate, which in principle denies that
privileged reference frames exist. Very germane to this discussion is the
recent admission (45) of an eminent physicist to the effect that the CMR
presents undeniable experimental evidence for the existence of an absolute
reference frame in the universe, a result which is consistent with
Marinov's (44) evidence for absolute space-time and also with at least one
of the earlier gravitational theories reviewed by North (42). This point
is treated in more detail subsequently and it is shown that the existence
of the CMR as an absolute reference frame is perhaps the most important
evidence that can be adduced for the creation model of the universe as
proposed herein. Before engaging in this discussion further, it is
necessary to complete the present discussion of the CMR and the
Cosmological Principle.

Measurements have shown the spatial distribution of the
CMR is so uniform that it is questionable whether it could have been
produced by the Big Bang scenario as it was originally conceived.
Weisskopf (45) has recently reviewed the nature of this and other problems
with the Big Bang model, and has discussed the provisional solutions
offered by postulating an explosive expansion in the very early stages of
the Big Bang. Questions still remain, however, not the least being that
the entire scenario assumes some type of grand unification theory which
has yet to be verified. But is it consistent for cosmologists on one hand
to claim that the universe evolved only through the action of known
physical laws and on the other hand to devise solutions to cosmological
problems by using unverified hypotheses as a basis for those solutions? We
have already noted the failure of the uniformitarian principle to
successfully account for the origin of Po halos in Precambrian granites,
or to provide a basis for synthesis of a piece of granite. In a similar
manner it seems the introduction of unverified physical concepts as the
basis for possible solutions to difficult evolutionary cosmological
problems is just the inevitable result of the failure to explain the
creation of the universe on the basis of the uniformitarian principle. In
any event, the newly proposed expansionary modification to the Big Bang
only deals with the earliest instants of the Big Bang, after which it is
supposed the expansion of the primeval fireball continues as envisioned in
the original Big Bang model. As we shall soon see, it appears there may be
a contradiction involved in the theoretical development of expansion of
the fireball.

The Big Bang Model and the Cosmological Principle

In spite of the foregoing difficulties it might still be
argued that Big Bang model must be correct because it predicts a universe
in accord with the Cosmological Principle, viz., that the universe appears
the same irrespective of the location of the observer in the universe. The
problem with this argument is that we really do not know the Cosmological
Principle is true. In fact, all that we know is that the large scale
structure of the universe appears to be approximately isotropic (i. e.,
the same in all directions) from our present point of observation. Modern
cosmology justifies the Cosmological Principle by coupling the observation
of isotropy about our position with the assumption that our galaxy does
not occupy a special position in the universe. That is, if our galaxy
occupies a non-specific or arbitrary position in the universe, then it
follows the universe must be isotropic everywhere and hence homogeneous as
well.

But what if our galaxy does occupy a privileged position
in the universe? First, it would no longer be logical to extrapolate the
isotropy which we observe to the other parts of the universe, which means
it would no longer be possible to justify either the condition of
homogeneity or the cosmological principle. Second, the simplest deduction
of the observed isotropy of the universe from our location is that the
universe must be spherically symmetric about either the Milky Way or some
point which is astronomically nearby. But spherical symmetry about any
point in the universe implies that point is the Center, and this brings us
to the discussion of the creation model.

A Creation Model of the Universe: The Fundamental
Postulate

The fundamental premise of the Judeo-Christian creation
model of the universe is determined by the scripture, "The Lord has
established His throne in the heavens, and His kingdom ruleth over all."
Psalm 103:19 (RSV). On the basis of this statement it is evident that the
Creator has established, or fixed, His throne at some point in the
universe, which in my view is none other than the Center of the universe.
It is axiomatic that a fixed point in the universe requires the existence
of a fixed or absolute reference frame. Previously it was noted that the
CMR has been recognized as establishing an absolute reference frame (45);
so it is quite clear that the fundamental postulate of this creation model
of the universe is based on tangible scientific evidence.

The Revolving Steady State Model of the Universe: A Brief
Description

Assuming there is a Center (C) to the universe, I propose
that the galaxies are not receding from each other as presently supposed,
but instead are revolving at different distances and at different
tangential speeds around C. On this basis all galaxies must have a
tangential velocity around C. Measurements have shown that our solar
system, and hence the Milky Way, has a cosmic velocity through the CMR
(46), and it is this velocity which is identified with the tangential
velocity of the Milky Way around C. In this view C must lie somewhere in
that plane which passes through the MW which is also perpendicular to the
cosmic velocity vector of the MW. It is evident that the RSS model
pictures the galaxies orbiting C in any one of many different-sized
concentric shells which suggests the alternate designation 'Shell Model of
the Universe.'

As originally conceived this Revolving Steady State (RSS)
model envisions a universe with galaxies which move in circular orbits
under the gravitational field produced by all of them. The field is
assumed to be stationary and spherically symmetric. Decades ago Einstein
made a general relativity study (47) of circulating particles constrained
by this type of gravitational field, but his analysis did not mention
redshifts, nor was there any hint that he considered his analysis had any
reference to the structure of the universe.

The RSS Model and Galactic Redshifts

Assuming the galaxies are revolving in different orbital
planes and with different tangential velocities v around some universal
center C, initially I thought that if the Milky Way was one of the
innermost galaxies, then most of the galactic redshifts as observed on
earth might be due to a combination of gravitational and transverse
Doppler effects. (A literature search showed that Burcev (48) had proposed
over a decade ago that quasars were possibly stellar objects whose
redshifts might be attributable to the transverse Doppler effect.)

Although questions have arisen about this explanation for
the galactic redshifts in the RSS model, it seems worthwhile to explain my
original rationale and the objections which now appear to present
themselves. In particular, in the Newtonian-based RSS model the galaxies
of mass m and tangential velocity v remain in circular orbits by
gravitational attraction of the total mass M within the sphere of orbital
radius R. In this scenario, mv2/R = mMG/R2, or
v2 = GM/R, where G is the gravitational constant. Thus an
observer on an innermost galaxy located at a distance R1 from C
would in theory see light from a more distant galaxy (at R2
from C) shifted in frequency because of the transverse Doppler effect and
the change in gravitational potential V(R) = -GM/R. The presumed limiting
distance R' at which galaxies could remain in stable orbits would be when
the tangential velocity v = c, the velocity of light. Beyond this presumed
galactic cutoff distance the RSS model tentatively assumes a rapidly
diminishing mass/energy density so that we do not encounter an infinite
gravitational potential (see discussion of equations (2) and (3) for more
details).

The frequency shifts expected in the RSS model can be
compared to an earth-bound observer comparing the frequency of a light
signal emitted from his position on the rotating earth's surface, where
the tangential velocity is v1, and the gravitational is
V1, with the frequency of the same signal emitted from an
overhead satellite which is orbiting with velocity v2 in
a gravitational potential V2. The experimentally confirmed (41)
equation for the redshift, as derived from the principle of equivalence,
is:

(1) z = (V1 - V2) / C 2 –
(v12 - v22 ) / 2
C2.

The same equation applies in the RSS model except that
v1 and V1 are the cosmic velocity and gravitational
potential of the Milky Way at R1 from C whereas v2
and V2 represent the same quantities for a more distant galaxy
at R2 from C.

Another source of frequency shifts arises because the
Milky Way (MW) is not exactly at C. In this case the more distant
galaxies, which are rotating away from or toward the MW, produce first
order Doppler redshifts or blueshifts. The blueshifts, which would be most
pronounced for nearby galaxies, can be eliminated for all practical
purposes if it is assumed that the more distant galaxies are rotating away
from the MW. This scenario would result in a recessional redshift which,
because it depends on the cosine of the angle between the velocity vector
of the outer galaxy and the line of sight from the MW to that galaxy,
would diminish with distance. Thus, of itself this redshift could at most
be only a part of the total galactic redshift observed on the earth. Of
course, a significant distance-related redshift, irrespective of its
origin, could overshadow most blueshifts expected from galaxies rotating
toward the MW and eliminate the need for assuming rotation away from the
MW.

We now return to the discussion of the redshifts expected
on the basis of eq. (1). If the D,
the mass/energy density of the universe is assumed to be constant then M =
4 BD R3/3, and
substitution of the appropriate quantities into eq. (1) leads to the
formal result that z is proportional to R2 , which is of the
same form of the redshift relation proposed in references (33,34,37-39).
On a similar basis, if the density is assumed to vary inversely as R, then
one can obtain an expression for z which is proportional to R, which is of
the same form as the Hubble relation (49).

Of course, astronomers measure apparent magnitudes, not
distances, and, for there to be a quantitative comparison between the
above results and the redshift distribution, the light flux relation for
the RSS model must be formulated so as to include the combined effect of
the redshift and gravitational focusing. This formulation has yet to be
done; thus on this basis alone it would be premature to claim the forgoing
results are consistent with the galactic redshift relation proposed by
Nicoll and Segal (38). Moreover it should be remembered that if the
universe is revolving, then an extraneous factor has been included into
the data which comprise the redshift distribution, and this would preclude
any immediate comparison. But regardless of the outcome of the above
calculations, there seems to be a more fundamental objection to the
preceding formulation.

In particular, we must carefully investigate whether the
gravitational potential V = - GM/R used in the above calculations is the
correct expression for the potential function. It is of crucial importance
to know whether it is correct for it is used as the basis for the
derivation of the Hubble relation (31,32) in Big Bang cosmology. According
to Silk (31) and Weinberg (32), its use in computing the potential at the
surface of an arbitrarily large, but finite sphere, of radius R within an
infinite universe is justified by a theorem due to Birkhoff. Part of the
proof of this theorem implicitly assumes that the universe is structured
according to the Cosmological Principle. Now the creation model of the
universe proposed herein is also of infinite extent, but the Cosmological
Principle does not hold, so that there is no basic reason why this theorem
should yield the correct gravitational potential in the RSS model. But
should it hold for the Big Bang model?

To answer this question we first note that the negative
gradient of the potential V = -GM/R yields a repulsive force per unit mass
F/m = GM/R2 whereas there is an experimentally confirmed
theorem in classical mechanics which definitely requires an attractive
force per unit mass F/m = -GM/R2 to exist at any point R within
a sphere enclosing a uniform mass distribution. This latter result is an
integral part of both the RSS and the Big Bang models. Thus the potential
V = -GM/R is just as wrong for the Big Bang model as it would be for the
RSS model because it yields an incorrect sign for the force. Even Silk's
(31) elementary treatment (see page 332) makes it clear that the
derivation of the Friedmann equation for the Big Bang expanding universe
is based on the potential V = -GM/R. Here we have a logical contradiction
in the theoretical development of the primeval fireball, which is of
course the basis for predicting the Hubble relation in the Big Bang.

An expression for the potential (50,51) which does yield
the correct attractive force is given by

The problem here is that for a finite, uniform density we
encounter an infinite potential due to the presumed infinite size of the
universe. This result is the same for both the Big Bang model and the RSS
model.

Alternatively, a finite potential can be obtained from
eq. (2) by assuming the density diminishes more rapidly than
1/R3 after R', where v = c. As a first approximation this
assumption truncates the potential at R'. In this case the upper
integration limits in eq. (2) must be changed from infinity to R', and we
have the following potential:

If this potential is used in eq. (1) to compute z for the
RSS model, then for a uniform density for all R less than R', we find the
redshift is zero. If, however, the density increases as RO.22
then we can formally obtain a relation (51) similar to that deduced by
Hawkins (34). Again, however, it is premature to make any claims about
this result until more work is done.

Another possibility for obtaining redshifts in the RSS
model is to assume the mass/energy density diminishes as 1/R4.
In this case the galactic orbits are no longer circular but spirals, and
there is a recessional component to the velocity which leads to a first
order Doppler shift and a Hubble type z % r
relation. For this view to have any credibility most of the mass/energy of
the universe must be in a form other than the matter and radiation energy
presently observed and/or inferred in stellar systems and intergalactic
dust. In this context it is perhaps worth mentioning that Ellis (52) has
proposed that there may be a large amount of undetected mass/energy in
other forms (e.g., neutrinos) which could raise the cosmic mass/energy
density to more than a million times the present density estimates of
10-31to 10-29g/cm3.

Of course the RSS model does not require that the
redshifts are velocity dependent. In this respect it is well known that
years ago proponents of a static or steady state universe proposed a
variety of distance-dependent interpretations of the redshift which were
non-recessional in nature (see North's (42) review for details and
references). The investigation of the origin of the redshifts in the RSS
model should include a reexamination of these alternatives.

Estimates of the Distance from the Milky Way to the
Center

Earlier it was implied that the Milky Way could be one of
the innermost galaxies in the RSS model. This view is based on the
assumption that the Milky Way's cosmic galactic velocity of 550 km/s
through the CMR (46) is just the tangential velocity of the Milky Way (MW)
around C. Galactic peculiar motions may also be of the same nature. On
this basis we can compute the angular velocity T of the MW around C from v2 =
T2R2 = GM/R,
which leads to the result that T =
2(BDG/3) ½.

For a constant D =
10-29 g/cm 3, then T = 5 x 10-11 rad/y, and the
distance from C to our galaxy would be about 3.7 x 107
light-years. (C of course would be located somewhere in the plane
perpendicular to the direction of the motion of the MW through the CMR.)
If D =
10-27g/cm3 then T = 5 x 10-10 rad/y (or 5 x
10-5 arc-s/y), which means that differential angular motions of
the more distant galaxies (as observed at the MW) would still be below the
present detection limit of light telescopes (•10-3 arc-s/y). In the latter case the
distance from the MW to C is about 3.7 x lO6 light-years and is
considered the preferred value so as reduce potential blueshift effects.
This distance places C outside our galaxy but still in the plane
which is perpendicular to the MW's cosmic velocity vector. No
observational data as yet seems to locate the direction of C in that
plane. On the other hand Orion is in that plane, and is prominently
mentioned in Scripture (Job 9:9;38:31, Amos 5:8). As a working hypothesis
I suggest that C may lie a few million light years beyond Orion. One
density used in the preceding calculations is higher than current
estimates but, as previously noted Ellis (52) has suggested there may be a
large amount of undetected mass/energy which may raise the value to more
than 10-24 g/cm3. On this basis the higher density
estimate is not unreasonable. In the RSS model the value of the density
cannot much exceed 10-26 g/cm3 or else the angular
velocity will increase to the point where differential motions of distant
galaxies would be observed.

The RSS Model and Olber's Paradox

We briefly digress to note that Olber's Paradox is
resolved if the universe is structured according to the RSS model because
the finite number of galaxies within a sphere of radius R’ will only
produce a finite light flux at the Milky Way. Even if there is luminous
matter beyond R', the density is assumed to diminish so rapidly that the
light flux received at the Milky Way from beyond R' will also be
finite.

The RSS Model and Varshni's Analysis of Quasar
Redshifts

In the context of the present proposal for the structure
of the universe it is most appropriate to refer to Varshni's (53)
investigation of the redshift distribution of 384 quasars. From a
probability analysis of those 384 quasars he found an astounding 57 sets
of redshift coincidences within small redshift intervals. Varshni
calculates the probability of chance coincidence of these groups to be
about 10-85. He concludes that if quasar redshifts are real
(he thinks they are not) and are of cosmological origin) i.e., distance
related, then the only logical deduction from the data is, in his own
words, as follows:

The Earth is indeed the center of the Universe. The
arrangement of quasars on certain spherical shells is only with respect to
the Earth. These shells would disappear if viewed from another galaxy or a
quasar. This means that the cosmological principle will have to go. Also,
it implies that a coordinate system fixed to the Earth will be a preferred
frame of reference in the Universe. Consequently, both the Special and the
General Theory of Relativity must be abandoned for cosmological
purposes.

These deductions are amazingly similar to the deductions
of the RSS model except that, first, the earth, or MW, is only
astronomically close to rather than being exactly at the Center, and,
second, the absolute reference frame is defined by the CMR and not the
position of the earth. And from earlier discussions in this article, it
should now be clear that the special and the general theory of relativity
are not credible theories in the RSS model. In fact, as shown below, if
anything it now appears that the results of one of the most celebrated
experiments in the history of physics contradict the basic premises of
both special and general relativity so directly that, to me at least, it
seems these theories are no longer tenable. As noted earlier, however,
just because special and general relativity are shown to be untenable does
not invalidate all the mathematical results obtained by these theories. It
suggests rather that there must exist an absolute space-time framework
which would encompass all the results of relativity which do accord with
experiment, but different results where relativity theory makes incorrect
predictions. Several investigations pertaining to this alternative
framework have already been cited (42-44). In addition we should also
mention Clube's (54) work and his exchanges with others (55) on
neo-Lorentzian relativity.

The RSS Model, the CMR, and the Theory of
Relativity

Clube's (54) explanation for the CMR is undergirded by
the assumption of a non-relativistic Lorentz invariant material vacuum. It
is intriguing to consider that the CMR may be the result of emissions from
a cold material vacuum. On a related matter, Clube cites other work (56)
as evidence that observations are not at all inconsistent with an
essentially Euclidean infinite cosmos. Certainly these ideas appear easily
reconcilable with the RSS model since they assume the existence of an
absolute reference frame. However, the details of Clube's theory have yet
to be worked out so it is premature to make any claims until further work
is done. Of course there is also the possibility that the CMR may be a
part of the 'light' that was created in Gen. 1:3. Interestingly, Weisskopf
(45) alludes to that very possibility in the closing paragraph of his
recent article:

Indeed, the Judeo-Christian tradition describes the
beginning of the world in a way that is surprisingly similar to the
scientific model. Previously, it seemed scientifically unsound to have
light created before the sun. The present scientific view does indeed
assume the early universe to be filled with various kinds of radiation
long before the sun was created. The Bible says about the beginning: "And
God said, 'Let there be light'; and there was light. And God saw the
light, that it was good."

Irrespective of how it originated, the most important
fact about the CMR is that it represents unequivocal evidence of an
absolute reference frame in the universe, a very necessary condition in
the RSS model, but an inconsistent condition for the relativistic
foundations of the Big Bang model. To explicitly show exactly how this
inconsistency arises, it is most helpful to include another quote from
Weisskopf's recent article:

It is remarkable that we now are justified in talking
about an absolute motion, and that we can measure it. The great dream of
Michelson and Morley is realized. They wanted to measure the absolute
motion of the earth by measuring the velocity of light in different
directions. According to Einstein, however, this velocity is always the
same. But the 3K radiation represents a fixed system of coordinates. It
makes sense to say that an observer is at rest in an absolute sense when
the 3K radiation appears to have the same frequencies in all directions.
Nature has provided an absolute frame of reference. The deeper
significance of this concept is not yet clear.

With all due respect to my eminent colleague I suggest
the meaning of this fact is not obscure at all. I suggest the evidence
(the CMR) which has received worldwide acclaim as confirmation of the Big
Bang is in reality its death knell for, ironically, it is now clear that
the existence of the CMR essentially falsifies the fundamental postulates
of the theory of relativity. The logic is quite straightforward. Referring
to the last quotation by Weisskopf, we note he mentions the famed
Michelson-Morley experiment, which achieved only a null result.

Lorentz's efforts to explain this null result on the
basis of an absolute reference frame were supposedly untenable. The real
explanation, according to almost every physics textbook written in the
past 60 years, was given by the theory of relativity, namely that:
Given the null result of the Michelson-Morley experiment, if the
fundamental principles of relativity are true, then there is no absolute
reference frame. But the CMR is an absolute reference frame, so the
original relativistic deductions about the Michelson-Morley experiment are
in error. More precisely, since logic requires the contrapositive of a
statement to be equivalent to the statement itself, the preceding "if
relativity is true, then no absolute reference frame" statement must be
equivalent to "if an absolute reference frame exists, then the fundamental
principles of relativity are untrue." In simpler terms the theory of
relativity has been falsified because a major prediction of the theory is
now known to be contradicted by an unambiguous experimental result.
Without relativity theory there is no Big Bang, no Hubble relation for the
redshift, and no explanation for the CMR in an evolutionary cosmological
model.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, REFLECTIONS, AND CONCLUSIONS

Special thanks goes to Drs. Frank Awbrey and Bill
Thwaites, Biology Department, San Diego State University, for extending to
me the opportunity of participating in this symposium, and for their
understanding and patience during the revision of this contribution.
Special thanks also to Dr. Alan Leviton, Director, Pacific Division of the
AAAS, who very kindly undertook the task of translating my computer disks
into a finished manuscript.

Several years ago the American Physical Society sent its
members a copy of the National Academy of Sciences resolution of April
1976, "An Affirmation of Freedom of Inquiry and Expression," which reads
in part ". . .That the search for knowledge and understanding of the
physical universe and of the living things that inhabit it should be
conducted under conditions of intellectual freedom, without religious
political or ideological restrictions. . . . That freedom of inquiry and
dissemination of ideas require that those so engaged be free to search
where their inquiry leads. . . without political censorship and without
fear of retribution in consequence of unpopularity of their conclusions.
Those who challenge existing theory must be protected from retaliatory
reactions."

In recent years the lofty aim of that resolution has not
been realized as I have tried to pursue my research. In my opinion some of
my more influential colleagues have found it easier to support this NAS
resolution for foreign dissident scientists than for an American scientist
who dissents from evolution. In fact I read in a recent issue of Science
(57) that the NAS itself has recently stepped up its anti-creation
campaign by the widespread distribution of a publication which claims that
creationism is not science. I will present the opposite viewpoint in my
forthcoming book (58) while also relating some details concerning my
difficulties in pursuing research in this somewhat controversial field.
The impact of aforementioned NAS resolution on my research efforts
receives special attention.

In closing I wish to express my gratitude to those of my
evolutionary colleagues who on so many occasions have assisted me, and on
other occasions have collaborated with me in my research. Of one thing I
am certain: Only in America could my research over the past two decades
have been accomplished. I close by expressing gratitude to my Creator for
allowing me the privilege of being an American. I submit this article to
the scientific community not as an antagonist who purports to have the
last word on the subject, but as a colleague who, in the spirit of free
scientific inquiry, genuinely seeks a vigorous, critical response to the
evidence presented herein. Perhaps a future "Evolutionists Confront
Creationists" AAAS symposium would be the ideal forum for this exchange to
occur.

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